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Takahashi Y, Kambayashi A. Physiologically based in vitro - In vivo correlation of modified release oral formulations with non-linear intestinal absorption: A case study using mirabegron. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024:114479. [PMID: 39233190 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2024] [Revised: 08/26/2024] [Accepted: 08/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
Establishing an in vitro - in vivo correlation (IVIVC) for oral modified release (MR) formulations would make it possible to substitute an in vitro dissolution test for human bioequivalence (BE) studies when changing the formulation or manufacturing methods. However, the number of IVIVC applications and approvals are reportedly low. One of the main reasons for failure to obtain IVIVCs using conventional methodologies may be the lack of consideration of the dissolution and absorption mechanisms of drugs in the physiological environment. In particular, it is difficult to obtain IVIVC using conventional methodologies for drugs with non-linear absorption processes. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to develop a physiologically based biopharmaceutics model (PBBM) that enables Level A IVIVCs for mirabegron MR formulations with non-linear absorption characteristics. Using human pharmacokinetic (PK) data for immediate-release formulations of mirabegron, the luminal drug concentration-dependent membrane permeation coefficient was calculated through curve fitting. The membrane permeation coefficient data were then applied to the human PK data of the MR formulations to estimate the in vivo dissolution rate by curve fitting. It was assumed that in vivo dissolution could be described using a zero-order rate equation. Furthermore, a Levy plot was generated using the estimated in vivo dissolution rate and the in vitro dissolution rate obtained from the literature. Finally, the dissolution rate of the MR formulations from the Levy plot was applied to the PBBM to predict the oral PK of the mirabegron MR formulations. This PB-IVIVC approach successfully generated linear Levy plots with slopes of almost 1.0 for MR formulations with different dose strengths and dissolution rates. The Cmax values of the MR formulations were accurately predicted using this approach, whereas the prediction errors for AUC exceeded the Level A IVIVC criteria. This can be attributed to the incomplete description of colonic absorption in the current PBBM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Takahashi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kambayashi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba 278-8510, Japan.
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2
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Arav Y. Advances in Modeling Approaches for Oral Drug Delivery: Artificial Intelligence, Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetics, and First-Principles Models. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:978. [PMID: 39204323 PMCID: PMC11359797 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16080978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Oral drug absorption is the primary route for drug administration. However, this process hinges on multiple factors, including the drug's physicochemical properties, formulation characteristics, and gastrointestinal physiology. Given its intricacy and the exorbitant costs associated with experimentation, the trial-and-error method proves prohibitively expensive. Theoretical models have emerged as a cost-effective alternative by assimilating data from diverse experiments and theoretical considerations. These models fall into three categories: (i) data-driven models, encompassing classical pharmacokinetics, quantitative-structure models (QSAR), and machine/deep learning; (ii) mechanism-based models, which include quasi-equilibrium, steady-state, and physiologically-based pharmacokinetics models; and (iii) first principles models, including molecular dynamics and continuum models. This review provides an overview of recent modeling endeavors across these categories while evaluating their respective advantages and limitations. Additionally, a primer on partial differential equations and their numerical solutions is included in the appendix, recognizing their utility in modeling physiological systems despite their mathematical complexity limiting widespread application in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yehuda Arav
- Department of Applied Mathematics, Israeli Institute for Biological Research, P.O. Box 19, Ness-Ziona 7410001, Israel
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3
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Amekyeh H, Sabra R, Billa N. A Window for Enhanced Oral Delivery of Therapeutics via Lipid Nanoparticles. Drug Des Devel Ther 2024; 18:613-630. [PMID: 38476206 PMCID: PMC10927375 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s439975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Oral administration of dosage forms is convenient and beneficial in several respects. Lipid nanoparticulate dosage forms have emerged as a useful carrier system in deploying low solubility drugs systemically, particularly class II, III, and IV drugs of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System. Like other nanoparticulate delivery systems, their low size-to-volume ratio facilitates uptake by phagocytosis. Lipid nanoparticles also provide scope for high drug loading and extended-release capability, ensuring diminished systemic side effects and improved pharmacokinetics. However, rapid gastrointestinal (GI) clearance of particulate delivery systems impedes efficient uptake across the mucosa. Mucoadhesion of dosage forms to the GI mucosa results in longer transit times due to interactions between the former and mucus. Delayed transit times facilitate transfer of the dosage form across the mucosa. In this regard, a balance between mucoadhesion and mucopenetration guarantees optimal systemic transfer. Furthermore, the interplay between GI anatomy and physiology is key to ensuring efficient systemic uptake. This review captures salient anatomical and physiological features of the GI tract and how these can be exploited for maximal systemic delivery of lipid nanoparticles. Materials used to impart mucoadhesion and examples of successful mucoadhesive lipid nanoformulations are highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hilda Amekyeh
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, University of Health and Allied Sciences, Ho, Ghana
| | - Rayan Sabra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, USA
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4
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Jadhav H, Augustijns P, Tannergren C. Approaches to Account for Colon Absorption in Physiologically Based Biopharmaceutics Modeling of Extended-Release Drug Products. Mol Pharm 2023; 20:6272-6288. [PMID: 37902586 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.3c00683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
The rate and extent of colon absorption are important determinants of the in vivo performance of extended-release (ER) drug products. The ability to appropriately predict this at different stages of development using mechanistic physiologically based biopharmaceutic modeling (PBBM) is highly desirable. This investigation aimed to evaluate the prediction performance of three different approaches to account for colon absorption in predictions of the in vivo performance of ER drug product variants with different in vitro release profiles. This was done by mechanistic predictions of the absorption and plasma exposure of the ER drug products using GastroPlus and GI-Sim for five drugs with different degrees of colon absorption limitations in humans. Colon absorption was accounted for in the predictions using three different approaches: (1) by an a priori approach using the default colon models, (2) by fitting the colon absorption scaling factors to the observed plasma concentration-time profiles after direct administration to the colon in humans, or (3) from the ER drug product variant with the slowest in vitro release profile. The prediction performance was evaluated based on the percentage prediction error and the average absolute prediction error (AAPE). Two levels of acceptance criteria corresponding to highly accurate (AAPE ≤ 20%) and accurate (AAPE 20-50%) predictions were defined prior to the evaluation. For the a priori approach, the relative bioavailability (Frel), AUC0-t, and Cmax of the ER drug product variants for the low to medium colon absorption limitation risk drugs was accurately predicted with an AAPE range of 11-53 and 8-59% for GastroPlus and GI-Sim, respectively. However, the prediction performance was poor for the high colon absorption limitation risk drugs. Moreover, accounting for the human regional colon absorption data in the models did not improve the prediction performance. In contrast, using the colon absorption scaling factors derived from the slowest ER variant significantly improved the prediction performance regardless of colon absorption limitation, with a majority of the predictions meeting the high accuracy criteria. For the slowest ER approach, the AAPE ranges were 5-24 and 5-32% for GastroPlus and GI-Sim, respectively, excluding the low permeability drug. In conclusion, the a priori PBBM can be used during candidate selection and early product design to predict the in vivo performance of ER drug products for low to medium colon absorption limitation risk drugs with sufficient accuracy. The results also indicate a limited value in performing human regional absorption studies in which the drug is administered to the colon as a bolus to support PBBM development for ER drug products. Instead, by performing an early streamlined relative bioavailability study with the slowest relevant ER in vitro release profile, a highly accurate PBBM suitable for ER predictions for commercial and regulatory applications can be developed, except for permeability-limited drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harshad Jadhav
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca Gothenburg, S-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, ON2 Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Augustijns
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, ON2 Herestraat 49, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Christer Tannergren
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca Gothenburg, S-431 83 Mölndal, Sweden
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5
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Koziolek M, Augustijns P, Berger C, Cristofoletti R, Dahlgren D, Keemink J, Matsson P, McCartney F, Metzger M, Mezler M, Niessen J, Polli JE, Vertzoni M, Weitschies W, Dressman J. Challenges in Permeability Assessment for Oral Drug Product Development. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:2397. [PMID: 37896157 PMCID: PMC10609725 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15102397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug permeation across the intestinal epithelium is a prerequisite for successful oral drug delivery. The increased interest in oral administration of peptides, as well as poorly soluble and poorly permeable compounds such as drugs for targeted protein degradation, have made permeability a key parameter in oral drug product development. This review describes the various in vitro, in silico and in vivo methodologies that are applied to determine drug permeability in the human gastrointestinal tract and identifies how they are applied in the different stages of drug development. The various methods used to predict, estimate or measure permeability values, ranging from in silico and in vitro methods all the way to studies in animals and humans, are discussed with regard to their advantages, limitations and applications. A special focus is put on novel techniques such as computational approaches, gut-on-chip models and human tissue-based models, where significant progress has been made in the last few years. In addition, the impact of permeability estimations on PK predictions in PBPK modeling, the degree to which excipients can affect drug permeability in clinical studies and the requirements for colonic drug absorption are addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirko Koziolek
- NCE Drug Product Development, Development Sciences, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Patrick Augustijns
- Drug Delivery and Disposition, Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Constantin Berger
- Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Würzburg, 97070 Würzburg, Germany;
| | - Rodrigo Cristofoletti
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
| | - David Dahlgren
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden (J.N.)
| | - Janneke Keemink
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche AG, 4070 Basel, Switzerland;
| | - Pär Matsson
- Department of Pharmacology and SciLifeLab Gothenburg, University of Gothenburg, 40530 Gothenburg, Sweden;
| | - Fiona McCartney
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University College Dublin, D04 V1W8 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Marco Metzger
- Translational Center for Regenerative Therapies (TLZ-RT) Würzburg, Branch of the Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research (ISC), 97082 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mario Mezler
- Quantitative, Translational & ADME Sciences, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, 67061 Ludwigshafen, Germany;
| | - Janis Niessen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden (J.N.)
| | - James E. Polli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD 21021, USA;
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 157 84 Zografou, Greece;
| | - Werner Weitschies
- Institute of Pharmacy, University of Greifswald, 17489 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Jennifer Dressman
- Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, 60596 Frankfurt, Germany
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6
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Tannergren C, Jadhav H, Eckernäs E, Fagerberg J, Augustijns P, Sjögren E. Physiologically Based Biopharmaceutics Modeling of regional and colon absorption in humans. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2023; 186:144-159. [PMID: 37028605 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2023.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Colon absorption is a key determinant for successful development of extended release and colon targeted drug products. This is the first systematic evaluation of the ability to predict in vivo regional differences in absorption and the extent of colon absorption in humans using mechanistic physiologically based biopharmaceutics modeling (PBBM). A new dataset, consisting of 19 drugs with a wide range of biopharmaceutics properties and extent of colon absorption in humans, was established. Mechanistic predictions of the extent of absorption and plasma exposure after oral, or jejunal and direct colon administration were performed in GastroPlus and GI-Sim using an a priori approach. Two new colon models developed in GI-Sim, were also evaluated to assess if the prediction performance could be improved. Both GastroPlus and GI-Sim met the pre-defined criteria for accurate predictions of regional and colon absorption for high permeability drugs irrespective of formulation type, while the prediction performance was poor for low permeability drugs. For solutions, the two new GI-Sim colon models improved the colon absorption prediction performance for the low permeability drugs while maintaining the accurate prediction performance for the high permeability drugs. In contrast, the prediction performance decreased for non-solutions using the two new colon models. In conclusion, PBBM can be used with sufficient accuracy to predict regional and colon absorption in humans for high permeability drugs in candidate selection as well as early design and development of extended release or colon targeted drug products. The prediction performance of the current models needs to be improved to allow high accuracy predictions for commercial drug product applications including highly accurate predictions of the entire plasma concentration-time profiles as well as for low permeability drugs.
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7
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Doggwiler V, Lanz M, Paredes V, Lipps G, Imanidis G. Tablet formulation with dual control concept for efficient colonic drug delivery. Int J Pharm 2023; 631:122499. [PMID: 36529358 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2022.122499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 12/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Aim of this study was to develop a tablet formulation for targeted colonic drug release by implementing two control mechanisms: A pH-sensitive coating layer based on Eudragit® FS 30 D to prevent drug release in the upper gastrointestinal tract, combined with a matrix based on plant-derived polysaccharide xyloglucan to inhibit drug release after coating removal in the small intestine and to allow microbiome triggered drug release in the colon. In vitro dissolution tests simulated the passage through the entire gastrointestinal tract with a four-stage protocol, including microbial xyloglucanase addition in physiologically relevant concentrations as microbiome surrogate to the colonic dissolution medium. Matrix erosion was monitored in parallel to drug release by measurement of reducing sugar equivalents resulting from xyloglucan hydrolysis. Limited drug release in gastric and small intestinal test stages and predominant release in the colonic stage was achieved. The xyloglucan matrix controlled drug release after dissolution of the enteric coating through the formation of a gummy polysaccharide layer at the tablet surface. Matrix degradation was dependent on enzyme concentration in the colonic medium and significantly accelerated drug release resulting in erosion-controlled release process. Drug release at physiologically relevant enzyme concentration was completed within the bounds of colonic transit time. The dual control concept was applicable to two drug substances with different solubility, providing similar release rates in colonic environment containing xyloglucanase. Drug solubility mechanistically affected release, with diffusion of caffeine, but not of 5-ASA, contributing to the overall release rate out of the matrix tablet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Doggwiler
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Michael Lanz
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Valeria Paredes
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Georg Lipps
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland
| | - Georgios Imanidis
- School of Life Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Northwestern Switzerland, Hofackerstrasse 30, 4132 Muttenz, Switzerland; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056 Basel, Switzerland.
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8
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Sussman EM, Shi H, Turner PA, Saylor DM, Weaver JD, Simon DD, Takmakov P, Sivan S, Shin HY, Di Prima MA, Godar DE. Nitinol Release of Nickel under Physiological Conditions: Effects of Surface Oxide, pH, Hydrogen Peroxide, and Sodium Hypochlorite. SHAPE MEMORY AND SUPERELASTICITY : ADVANCES IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022; 8:98-106. [PMID: 37720627 PMCID: PMC10502700 DOI: 10.1007/s40830-022-00364-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
Nitinol is a nickel-titanium alloy widely used in medical devices for its unique pseudoelastic and shape-memory properties. However, nitinol can release potentially hazardous amounts of nickel, depending on surface manufacturing yielding different oxide thicknesses and compositions. Furthermore, nitinol medical devices can be implanted throughout the body and exposed to extremes in pH and reactive oxygen species (ROS), but few tools exist for evaluating nickel release under such physiological conditions. Even in cardiovascular applications, where nitinol medical devices are relatively common and the blood environment is well understood, there is a lack of information on how local inflammatory conditions after implantation might affect nickel ion release. For this study, nickel release from nitinol wires of different finishes was measured in pH conditions and at ROS concentrations selected to encompass and exceed literature reports of extracellular pH and ROS. Results showed increased nickel release at levels of pH and ROS reported to be physiological, with decreasing pH and increasing concentrations of hydrogen peroxide and NaOCl/HOCl having the greatest effects. The results support the importance of considering the implantation site when designing studies to predict nickel release from nitinol and underscore the value of understanding the chemical milieu at the device-tissue interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric M. Sussman
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Huiyu Shi
- Division of Applied Mechanics, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Paul A. Turner
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - David M. Saylor
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Jason D. Weaver
- Division of Applied Mechanics, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - David D. Simon
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Pavel Takmakov
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Shiril Sivan
- Division of Applied Mechanics, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Hainsworth Y. Shin
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Matthew A. Di Prima
- Division of Applied Mechanics, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
| | - Dianne E. Godar
- Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Ave, Silver Spring, MD 20993-0002, USA
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9
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Application of In Vivo Imaging Techniques and Diagnostic Tools in Oral Drug Delivery Research. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14040801. [PMID: 35456635 PMCID: PMC9025904 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14040801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug absorption following oral administration is determined by complex and dynamic interactions between gastrointestinal (GI) physiology, the drug, and its formulation. Since many of these interactions are not fully understood, the COST action on “Understanding Gastrointestinal Absorption-related Processes (UNGAP)” was initiated in 2017, with the aim to improve the current comprehension of intestinal drug absorption and foster future developments in this field. In this regard, in vivo techniques used for the characterization of human GI physiology and the intraluminal behavior of orally administered dosage forms in the GI tract are fundamental to gaining deeper mechanistic understanding of the interplay between human GI physiology and drug product performance. In this review, the potential applications, advantages, and limitations of the most important in vivo techniques relevant to oral biopharmaceutics are presented from the perspectives of different research fields.
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Schütt M, O’Farrell C, Stamatopoulos K, Hoad CL, Marciani L, Sulaiman S, Simmons MJH, Batchelor HK, Alexiadis A. Simulating the Hydrodynamic Conditions of the Human Ascending Colon: A Digital Twin of the Dynamic Colon Model. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14010184. [PMID: 35057077 PMCID: PMC8778200 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14010184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 12/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The performance of solid oral dosage forms targeting the colon is typically evaluated using standardised pharmacopeial dissolution apparatuses. However, these fail to replicate colonic hydrodynamics. This study develops a digital twin of the Dynamic Colon Model; a physiologically representative in vitro model of the human proximal colon. Magnetic resonance imaging of the Dynamic Colon Model verified that the digital twin robustly replicated flow patterns under different physiological conditions (media viscosity, volume, and peristaltic wave speed). During local contractile activity, antegrade flows of 0.06-0.78 cm s-1 and backflows of -2.16--0.21 cm s-1 were measured. Mean wall shear rates were strongly time and viscosity dependent although peaks were measured between 3.05-10.12 s-1 and 5.11-20.34 s-1 in the Dynamic Colon Model and its digital twin respectively, comparable to previous estimates of the USPII with paddle speeds of 25 and 50 rpm. It is recommended that viscosity and shear rates are considered when designing future dissolution test methodologies for colon-targeted formulations. In the USPII, paddle speeds >50 rpm may not recreate physiologically relevant shear rates. These findings demonstrate how the combination of biorelevant in vitro and in silico models can provide new insights for dissolution testing beyond established pharmacopeial methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schütt
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (K.S.); (M.J.H.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (C.O.); (A.A.)
| | - Connor O’Farrell
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (K.S.); (M.J.H.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (C.O.); (A.A.)
| | - Konstantinos Stamatopoulos
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (K.S.); (M.J.H.S.)
- Biopharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Development, PDS, MST, RD Platform Technology & Science, GSK, David Jack Centre, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire SG12 0DP, UK
| | - Caroline L. Hoad
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UK, UK; (C.L.H.); (L.M.); (S.S.)
- Sir Peter Mansfield Imaging Centre, School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Luca Marciani
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UK, UK; (C.L.H.); (L.M.); (S.S.)
| | - Sarah Sulaiman
- Nottingham Digestive Diseases Centre and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre, Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2UK, UK; (C.L.H.); (L.M.); (S.S.)
| | - Mark J. H. Simmons
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (K.S.); (M.J.H.S.)
| | - Hannah K. Batchelor
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK;
| | - Alessio Alexiadis
- School of Chemical Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK; (K.S.); (M.J.H.S.)
- Correspondence: (M.S.); (C.O.); (A.A.)
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11
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Quantification of Fluid Volume and Distribution in the Paediatric Colon via Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13101729. [PMID: 34684022 PMCID: PMC8540766 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to quantify the fluid in the stomach and small intestine of children, and the stomach, small intestine and colon of adults. This is the first study to quantify fluid volumes and distribution using MRI in the paediatric colon. MRI datasets from 28 fasted (aged 0-15 years) and 18 fluid-fed (aged 10-16 years) paediatric participants were acquired during routine clinical care. A series of 2D- and 3D-based software protocols were used to measure colonic fluid volume and localisation. The paediatric colon contained a mean volume of 22.5 mL ± 41.3 mL fluid, (range 0-167.5 mL, median volume 0.80 mL) in 15.5 ± 17.5 discreet fluid pockets (median 12). The proportion of the fluid pockets larger than 1 mL was 9.6%, which contributed to 94.5% of the total fluid volume observed. No correlation was detected between all-ages and colonic fluid volume, nor was a difference in colonic fluid volumes observed based on sex, fed state or age group based on ICH-classifications. This study quantified fluid volumes within the paediatric colon, and these data will aid and accelerate the development of biorelevant tools to progress paediatric drug development for colon-targeting formulations.
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12
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Weitschies W, Müller L, Grimm M, Koziolek M. Ingestible devices for studying the gastrointestinal physiology and their application in oral biopharmaceutics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 176:113853. [PMID: 34192551 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.113853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Ingestible sensor systems are unique tools for obtaining physiological data from an undisturbed gastrointestinal tract. Since their dimensions correspond to monolithic oral dosage forms, such as enteric coated tablets or hydrogel matrix tablets, they also allow insights into the physiological conditions experienced by non-disintegrating dosage forms on their way through the gastrointestinal tract. In this work, the different ingestible sensor systems which can be used for this purpose are described and their potential applications as well as difficulties and pitfalls with respect to their use are presented. It is also highlighted how the data on transit times, pH, temperature and pressure as well as the data from different animal models commonly used in drug product development such as dogs and pigs have contributed to a deeper mechanistic understanding of oral drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Werner Weitschies
- Institute of Pharmacy, Center of Drug Absorption and Transport, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
| | - Laura Müller
- Institute of Pharmacy, Center of Drug Absorption and Transport, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Grimm
- Institute of Pharmacy, Center of Drug Absorption and Transport, University of Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Mirko Koziolek
- NCE Formulation Sciences, AbbVie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Ludwigshafen, Germany
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13
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Preisig D, Varum F, Bravo R, Hartig C, Spleiss J, Abbes S, Caobelli F, Wild D, Puchkov M, Huwyler J, Haschke M. Colonic delivery of metronidazole-loaded capsules for local treatment of bacterial infections: A clinical pharmacoscintigraphy study. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2021; 165:22-30. [PMID: 33971274 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Drug delivery to the colon offers great promise for local treatment of colonic diseases as it allows bypassing systemic absorption in the small intestine, thereby increasing luminal drug concentrations in the colon. The primary objective of this in vivo pharmaco-scintigraphy study was to assess the colon drug targeting accuracy of a metronidazole benzoate colonic drug delivery system intended for local treatment of Clostridioides difficile infections. Additionally, it was assessed if the concept of mucoadhesion would increase colonic residence time and promote higher drug bioavailability. Two different capsule formulations were designed and tested in healthy human subjects. Capsules contained either non-mucoadhesive (NM) or mucoadhesive (M) microgranules, both loaded with 100 mg metronidazole benzoate (antibiotic prodrug) and 5 mg samarium oxide (scintigraphy tracer). Filled capsules were coated with a colonic-targeting technology consisting of two functional layers, which allow for accelerated drug release mediated by the intestinal pH in combination with colonic bacteria. Coated capsules were neutron-activated to yield the radioisotope 153Sm prior to administration to 18 healthy subjects. Gamma-scintigraphy imaging was combined with the measurement of drug plasma levels. Formulation NM showed high colon-targeting accuracy. Initial capsule disintegration within the targeted ileocolonic region was observed in 8 out of 9 subjects (89%) with colonic arrival times in the range of 3.5-12 h and reduced systemic exposure. In contrast, the mucoadhesive formulation M showed some inconsistency regarding the site of initial capsule disintegration (targeting accuracy 56%). Variability of drug release was attributed to self-adhesion and agglomeration of the mucoadhesive microparticles within the capsule. Accurate ileocolonic delivery of metronidazole-loaded microgranules was achieved following oral administration of colonic-targeted capsules. Delayed drug release from NM microparticles in the colon leads to a reduced systemic exposure compared to immediate-release data from literature and presumably elevated drug concentrations in the colonic lumen. This approach offers promising options for the local treatment of colonic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Preisig
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | | - Sonia Abbes
- Tillotts Pharma AG, Rheinfelden, Switzerland
| | - Federico Caobelli
- Division of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Damian Wild
- Division of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Maxim Puchkov
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Huwyler
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Manuel Haschke
- Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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Arévalo-Pérez R, Maderuelo C, Lanao JM. Recent advances in colon drug delivery systems. J Control Release 2020; 327:703-724. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.09.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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15
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Foppoli A, Maroni A, Moutaharrik S, Melocchi A, Zema L, Palugan L, Cerea M, Gazzaniga A. In vitro and human pharmacoscintigraphic evaluation of an oral 5-ASA delivery system for colonic release. Int J Pharm 2019; 572:118723. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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16
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Hitchings R, Kelly L. Predicting and Understanding the Human Microbiome's Impact on Pharmacology. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2019; 40:495-505. [PMID: 31171383 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2019.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Our bodies each possess a unique and dynamic collection of microbes and viruses, collectively the 'microbiome', with distinct metabolic capacities from our human cells. Unforeseen modification of drugs by the microbiome can drastically alter their clinical effectiveness, with the most dramatic cases leading to fatal drug interactions. Pharmaceuticals can be activated, deactivated, toxified, or release metabolites that alter the 'canonical' pharmacokinetics of the drug. Thus, predicting and characterizing microbe-drug interactions is necessary to develop and implement personalized drug administration protocols and, more broadly, to improve drug safety and efficacy. In this review, we focus on microbiome-driven alterations to drug pharmacokinetics and provide a research framework for pharmacologists interested in characterizing microbiome interactions with any drug of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reese Hitchings
- Department of Systems and Computational Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, NY, USA
| | - Libusha Kelly
- Department of Systems and Computational Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, NY, USA; Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, The Bronx, NY, USA.
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17
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Impact of regional differences along the gastrointestinal tract of healthy adults on oral drug absorption: An UNGAP review. Eur J Pharm Sci 2019; 134:153-175. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2019.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Revised: 04/03/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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18
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Evaluating the clinical importance of bacterial degradation of therapeutic agents in the lower intestine of adults using adult fecal material. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 125:142-150. [PMID: 30273661 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.09.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 09/15/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Optimize adult fecal material composition for evaluating the clinical importance of bacterial degradation of therapeutic agents in the lower intestine (distal small intestine, D-SI and proximal colon, P-COL). Evaluate the usefulness of optimized fecal material in the evaluation of bacterial degradation of five model highly permeable drugs: two nitroreductase substrates (nitrendipine and nimodipine), three drugs for which published data indicate no impact of bacterial degradation on in vivo performance (levodopa, budesonide and rivaroxaban) and one prodrug (sulfasalazine, an azoreductase substrate) from which a locally acting on the mucosa of the lower intestine drug is derived (mesalamine). METHODS 30 min and 95 min were used as point estimates of maximum bacterial degradation half-lives for bacterial degradation in D-SI or in P-COL, respectively, to be clinically important, i.e. for at least 20% reduction in absorption from D-SI or P-COL to occur. Optimization of fecal material was based on recently reported degradation profiles of metronidazole (a nitroreductase substrate) and olsalazine (an azoreductase substrate) in the lower intestine of healthy adults which are clinically important. Model compounds were tested in optimized fecal materials and data were evaluated vs. existing in vivo data in adults. RESULTS Simulated ileal bacteria (SIB) consisted of 5.5% (w/v) stools in normal saline and simulated colonic bacteria (SCoB) consisted of 8.3% (w/v) stools in normal saline. For all model compounds, data in SIB and SCoB were in line with available information in adults. [Degradation half-life in SIB/Degradation half-life in SCoB] ≈ [Stool content in SCoB/Stool content in SIB] ≈ 1.5, i.e. bacterial degradation in SIB could be predicted from bacterial degradation in SCoB. CONCLUSION Data in SCoB only are useful for evaluating whether bacterial degradation in P-COL and in D-SI is likely to be clinically important for orally administered, highly permeable drugs or prodrugs which act locally after bacterial degradation. The usefulness of this approach in cases where enzymes other than nitroreductases or azoreductases are involved requires further confirmation.
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19
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Pentafragka C, Symillides M, McAllister M, Dressman J, Vertzoni M, Reppas C. The impact of food intake on the luminal environment and performance of oral drug products with a view to in vitro and in silico simulations: a PEARRL review. J Pharm Pharmacol 2018; 71:557-580. [DOI: 10.1111/jphp.12999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
Using the type of meal and dosing conditions suggested by regulatory agencies as a basis, this review has two specific objectives: first, to summarize our understanding on the impact of food intake on luminal environment and drug product performance and second, to summarize the usefulness and limitations of available in vitro and in silico methodologies for the evaluation of drug product performance after food intake.
Key findings
Characterization of the luminal environment and studies evaluating product performance in the lumen, under conditions suggested by regulatory agencies for simulating the fed state, are limited. Various in vitro methodologies have been proposed for evaluating drug product performance in the fed state, but systematic validation is lacking. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modelling approaches require the use of in vitro biorelevant data and, to date, have been used primarily for investigating the mechanisms via which an already observed food effect is mediated.
Summary
Better understanding of the impact of changes induced by the meal administration conditions suggested by regulatory agencies on the luminal fate of the drug product is needed. Relevant information will be useful for optimizing the in vitro test methods and increasing the usefulness of PBPK modelling methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Pentafragka
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Mira Symillides
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Jennifer Dressman
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, Frankfurt/Main, Germany
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Christos Reppas
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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20
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Lozoya-Agullo I, González-Álvarez I, Merino-Sanjuán M, Bermejo M, González-Álvarez M. Preclinical models for colonic absorption, application to controlled release formulation development. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2018; 130:247-259. [PMID: 30064699 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Oral controlled release (CR) formulations have many benefits and have become a valuable resource for the local and systemic administration of drugs. The most important characteristic of these pharmaceutical products is that drug absorption occurs mainly in the colon. Therefore, this review analyses the physiological and physicochemical features that may affect an orally administered CR product, as well as the different strategies to develop a CR dosage form and the methods used to evaluate the formulation efficacy. The models available to study the intestinal permeability and their applicability to colonic permeability determinations are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Lozoya-Agullo
- Pharmacokinetics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Miguel Hernandez University, Spain; Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical Technology and Parasitology, University of Valencia, Spain
| | | | - Matilde Merino-Sanjuán
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmaceutical Technology and Parasitology, University of Valencia, Spain; Molecular Recognition and Technological Development, Polytechnic University-University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Marival Bermejo
- Pharmacokinetics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Miguel Hernandez University, Spain
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21
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Hens B, Corsetti M, Spiller R, Marciani L, Vanuytsel T, Tack J, Talattof A, Amidon GL, Koziolek M, Weitschies W, Wilson CG, Bennink RJ, Brouwers J, Augustijns P. Exploring gastrointestinal variables affecting drug and formulation behavior: Methodologies, challenges and opportunities. Int J Pharm 2017; 519:79-97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.11.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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22
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Cerniglia CE, Pineiro SA, Kotarski SF. An update discussion on the current assessment of the safety of veterinary antimicrobial drug residues in food with regard to their impact on the human intestinal microbiome. Drug Test Anal 2017; 8:539-48. [PMID: 27443209 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The human gastrointestinal tract ecosystem consists of complex and diverse microbial communities that have now been collectively termed the intestinal microbiome. Recent scientific breakthroughs and research endeavours have increased our understanding of the important role the intestinal microbiome plays in human health and disease. The use of antimicrobial new animal drugs in food-producing animals may result in the presence of low levels of drug residues in edible foodstuffs. There is concern that antimicrobial new animal drugs in or on animal-derived food products at residue-level concentrations could disrupt the colonization barrier and/or modify the antimicrobial resistance profile of human intestinal bacteria. Therapeutic doses of antimicrobial drugs have been shown to promote shifts in the intestinal microbiome, and these disruptions promote the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. To assess the effects of antimicrobial new animal drug residues in food on human intestinal bacteria, many national regulatory agencies and international committees follow a harmonized process, VICH GL36(R), which was issued by a trilateral organization of the European Union, the USA, and Japan called the International Cooperation on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Veterinary Medicinal Products (VICH). The guidance describes a general approach currently used by national regulatory agencies and international committees to assess the effects of antimicrobial new animal drug residues in animal-derived food on human intestinal bacteria. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of this current approach as part of the antimicrobial new animal drug approval process in participating countries, give insights on the microbiological endpoints used in this safety evaluation, and discuss the availability of new information. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Cerniglia
- Division of Microbiology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. FDA, Jefferson, AR, 72079, USA
| | - Silvia A Pineiro
- Division of Human Food Safety, Center for Veterinary Medicine, U.S. FDA, Rockville, MD, 20855, USA
| | - Susan F Kotarski
- Veterinary Medicine Research & Development, Zoetis, Kalamazoo, MI, 49007, USA
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23
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Daousani C, Macheras P. Biopharmaceutic classification of drugs revisited. Eur J Pharm Sci 2016; 95:82-87. [PMID: 27496048 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2016] [Revised: 07/26/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The biopharmaceutics classification system (BCS) was based on the tube model of the intestinal lumen. This model considers constant drug permeability along the intestines, a plug flow fluid with the suspended drug particles moving with the fluid, and dissolution in the small particle limit. Since then the research work focusing on drug gastrointestinal (GI) absorption phenomena and processes rely on the classical laws of transport, diffusion and kinetics; however, the homogeneous assumptions associated with the well-stirred Euclidean media, where the classical laws of diffusion and kinetics apply, have been questioned in the past. In this work we explore the biopharmaceutic classification of drugs using a heterogeneous pseudo steady-state model of oral drug absorption. The fraction of dose absorbed (Fabs) was expressed as a function of two time-dependent processes where time dependent coefficients govern drug absorption and non-absorption processes. Fundamental drug properties like the absorption potential are correlated with Fabs and allow the biopharmaceutic classification of drugs taking into account the heterogeneous aspects of oral drug absorption. This analysis reveals that for Class I drugs no time dependency is expected for both absorption and non absorption processes since the gastric emptying is controlling the absorption of Class I drugs while the completion of absorption (Fabs>90%) is terminated along the first part of the jejunum. Due to the biopharmaceutical properties of Class II, III and IV drugs, these drugs travel throughout the GI tract and therefore both absorption and non absorption processes will exhibit time dependency. Thus, the calculation of Fabs (<90%) for Class II, III and IV is dependent on the estimates of the time exponents of time dependent coefficients controlling drug absorption e.g. dissolution, uptake or non absorption e.g. precipitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysa Daousani
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece
| | - Panos Macheras
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics & Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece.
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24
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Boland M. Human digestion--a processing perspective. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2016; 96:2275-2283. [PMID: 26711173 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2015] [Revised: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/20/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The human digestive system is reviewed in the context of a process with four major unit operations: oral processing to reduce particle size and produce a bolus; gastric processing to initiate chemical and enzymatic breakdown; small intestinal processing to break down macromolecules and absorb nutrients; and fermentation and water removal in the colon. Topics are highlighted about which we need to know more, including effects of aging and dentition on particle size in the bolus, effects of different patterns of food and beverage intake on nutrition, changes in saliva production and composition, mechanical effects of gastric processing, distribution of pH in the stomach, physicochemical and enzymatic effects on nutrient availability and uptake in the small intestine, and the composition, effects of and changes in the microbiota of the colon. Current topics of interest including food synergy, gut-brain interactions, nutritional phenotype and digestion in the elderly are considered. Finally, opportunities for food design based on an understanding of digestive processing are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mike Boland
- Riddet Institute, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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25
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Fröhlich EE, Fröhlich E. Cytotoxicity of Nanoparticles Contained in Food on Intestinal Cells and the Gut Microbiota. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:509. [PMID: 27058534 PMCID: PMC4848965 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17040509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Toxicity of nanoparticles (NPs) upon oral exposure has been studied in animals using physiological changes, behavior, histology, and blood analysis for evaluation. The effects recorded include the combination of the action on cells of the exposed animal and the reaction of the microorganisms that populate the external and internal surfaces of the body. The importance of these microorganisms, collectively termed as microbiota, for the health of the host has been widely recognized. They may also influence toxicity of NPs but these effects are difficult to differentiate from toxicity on cells of the gastrointestinal tract. To estimate the likelihood of preferential damage of the microbiota by NPs the relative sensitivity of enterocytes and bacteria was compared. For this comparison NPs with antimicrobial action present in consumer products were chosen. The comparison of cytotoxicity with Escherichia coli as representative for intestinal bacteria and on gastrointestinal cells revealed that silver NPs damaged bacteria at lower concentrations than enterocytes, while the opposite was true for zinc oxide NPs. These results indicate that silver NPs may cause adverse effects by selectively affecting the gut microbiota. Fecal transplantation from NP-exposed animals to unexposed ones offers the possibility to verify this hypothesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther E Fröhlich
- Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 4, Graz A-8010, Austria.
| | - Eleonore Fröhlich
- Center for Medical Research, Medical University of Graz, Stiftingtalstr. 24, Graz A-8010, Austria.
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26
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Lozoya-Agullo I, González-Álvarez I, González-Álvarez M, Merino-Sanjuán M, Bermejo M. In Situ Perfusion Model in Rat Colon for Drug Absorption Studies: Comparison with Small Intestine and Caco-2 Cell Model. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:3136-45. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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27
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Ding LK, Yang L, Gao XH, Chen SN, Jia N, Li XQ, Zhou L, Hang TJ, Wen AD. Application of liquid chromatographic/tandem mass spectrometric method to a urinary excretion study of subutinib and active metabolite in human urine. Biomed Chromatogr 2015; 30:596-600. [PMID: 26284315 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 07/25/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A novel and selective liquid chromatographic-mass spectrometric method (LC-MS/MS) has been established and validated for simultaneous determination of subutinib and active metabolite in human urine. Urine samples were extracted by liquid-liquid extraction with ethyl acetate and separated on a Wondasil C18 (150 × 2.1 mm, 3.5 µm), with methanol-0.2% formic acid solution (73:27, v/v) as mobile phase at flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. The linear range was 0.5000-200.0 ng/mL for subutinib and active metabolite, with a lower limit of quantitation of 0.5000 ng/mL. Intra- and inter-run precisions were all <11.8 and 14.3%, and the accuracies were all <4.5 and 5.4%, with the extraction recoveries 88.8-97.5 and 93.8-99.4% for the two analytes, respectively. The carryover values were all <15% for the two anayltes. The method was successfully applied to study urinary excretion of subutinib and active metabolite in human after oral administration of subutinib maleate capsules in fed and fasting states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-kun Ding
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Lin Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Xiao-hua Gao
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Su-ning Chen
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Na Jia
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Xue-qing Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Lun Zhou
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
| | - Tai-jun Hang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, China Pharmaceutical University, 24 Tongjiaxiang, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ai-dong Wen
- Department of Pharmacy, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Chang Le West Street 127, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710032, China
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28
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Markopoulos C, Vertzoni M, Symillides M, Kesisoglou F, Reppas C. Two-Stage Single-Compartment Models to Evaluate Dissolution in the Lower Intestine. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:2986-97. [PMID: 25989323 DOI: 10.1002/jps.24485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2015] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The purpose was to propose two-stage single-compartment models for evaluating dissolution characteristics in distal ileum and ascending colon, under conditions simulating the bioavailability and bioequivalence studies in fasted and fed state by using the mini-paddle and the compendial flow-through apparatus (closed-loop mode). Immediate release products of two highly dosed active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), sulfasalazine and L-870,810, and one mesalamine colon targeting product were used for evaluating their usefulness. Change of medium composition simulating the conditions in distal ileum (SIFileum ) to a medium simulating the conditions in ascending colon in fasted state and in fed state was achieved by adding an appropriate solution in SIFileum . Data with immediate release products suggest that dissolution in lower intestine is substantially different than in upper intestine and is affected by regional pH differences > type/intensity of fluid convection > differences in concentration of other luminal components. Asacol® (400 mg/tab) was more sensitive to type/intensity of fluid convection. In all the cases, data were in line with available human data. Two-stage single-compartment models may be useful for the evaluation of dissolution in lower intestine. The impact of type/intensity of fluid convection and viscosity of media on luminal performance of other APIs and drug products requires further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constantinos Markopoulos
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, Greece
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, Greece
| | - Mira Symillides
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, Greece
| | - Filippos Kesisoglou
- Biopharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Supply, Merck & Co., Inc, West Point, PA, USA
| | - Christos Reppas
- Faculty of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Zografou, Greece
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Herbrink M, Nuijen B, Schellens JHM, Beijnen JH. Variability in bioavailability of small molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Cancer Treat Rev 2015; 41:412-22. [PMID: 25818541 DOI: 10.1016/j.ctrv.2015.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Revised: 03/11/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Small molecular tyrosine kinase inhibitors (smTKIs) are in the centre of the very quickly expanding area of personalized chemotherapy and oral applicability thereof. The number of drugs in this class is rapidly growing, with twenty current approvals by both the European Medicines Agency (EMA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The drugs are, however, generally characterized by a poor oral, and thus variable, bioavailability. This results in significant variation in plasma levels and exposure. The cause is a complex interplay of factors, including poor aqueous solubility, issued permeability, membrane transport and enzymatic metabolism. Additionally, food and drug-drug interactions can play a significant role. The issues related with an impaired bioavailability generally receive little attention. To the best of our knowledge, this article is the first to provide an overview of the factors that determine the bioavailability of the smTKIs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maikel Herbrink
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Louwesweg 6, 1006 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Bastiaan Nuijen
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Louwesweg 6, 1006 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Jan H M Schellens
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Louwesweg 6, 1006 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science Faculty, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, Netherlands Cancer Institute-Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, Louwesweg 6, 1006 BK Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science Faculty, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Palugan L, Cerea M, Zema L, Gazzaniga A, Maroni A. Coated pellets for oral colon delivery. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2014.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Becker D, Zhang J, Heimbach T, Penland RC, Wanke C, Shimizu J, Kulmatycki K. Novel orally swallowable IntelliCap(®) device to quantify regional drug absorption in human GI tract using diltiazem as model drug. AAPS PharmSciTech 2014; 15:1490-7. [PMID: 25023947 PMCID: PMC4245429 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-014-0172-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2014] [Accepted: 06/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Typically, colonic absorption of a drug is mandatory for a sustained release formulation to hold the drug’s plasma level for more than 12 or 24 h above the minimum therapeutic plasma concentration (efficacy). According to Drugs@FDA, only 7.4% of the oral drugs are extended release forms probably showing colonic absorption. Therefore an early determination of a drug’s colonic absorption using the IntelliCap® in animals or humans will provide the mandatory information to initiate or stop a SR form development. Diltiazem (60 mg) is used in the oral swallowable IntelliCap® and the marketed SR form from Mylan (coated beads). A human study with 14 healthy volunteers compared the Mylan formulation with the IntelliCap® device that releases the drug identical to the in-vitro dissolution of the Mylan product. The plasma profiles of IntelliCap® and Mylan formulation are highly similar. The mean AUC (bioequivalence fulfilled) and mean Cmax of IntelliCap® shows only a difference of +15% and −12%, respectively. But the PK profile of the Mylan formulation shows a broader peak around Cmax. About 81.8% diltiazem was absorbed in the colon (IntelliCap®) comparable to former publications. The Mylan is a SR diffusion coated beads form whereas the IntelliCap® is a monolithic capsule. The beads are transported in the gut and spread which results in a longer Tmax and a broader Cmax peak. The IntelliCap® device can quantitatively measure the colonic absorption of a drug in excellent accordance to a standard oral SR dosage form.
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Sjögren E, Abrahamsson B, Augustijns P, Becker D, Bolger MB, Brewster M, Brouwers J, Flanagan T, Harwood M, Heinen C, Holm R, Juretschke HP, Kubbinga M, Lindahl A, Lukacova V, Münster U, Neuhoff S, Nguyen MA, Peer AV, Reppas C, Hodjegan AR, Tannergren C, Weitschies W, Wilson C, Zane P, Lennernäs H, Langguth P. In vivo methods for drug absorption – Comparative physiologies, model selection, correlations with in vitro methods (IVIVC), and applications for formulation/API/excipient characterization including food effects. Eur J Pharm Sci 2014; 57:99-151. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2013] [Revised: 02/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Bioequivalence for Drug Products Acting Locally Within Gastrointestinal Tract. FDA BIOEQUIVALENCE STANDARDS 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-1252-0_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Film coatings for oral colon delivery. Int J Pharm 2013; 457:372-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2013] [Revised: 05/14/2013] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Varum F, Hatton G, Basit A. Food, physiology and drug delivery. Int J Pharm 2013; 457:446-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2013.04.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 04/08/2013] [Accepted: 04/12/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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36
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Nanoencapsulation of polyphenols for protective effect against colon–rectal cancer. Biotechnol Adv 2013; 31:514-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2012.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Revised: 08/12/2012] [Accepted: 08/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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37
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Macheras P, Karalis V, Valsami G. Keeping a critical eye on the science and the regulation of oral drug absorption: a review. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:3018-36. [PMID: 23568812 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 03/01/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
This review starts with an introduction on the theoretical aspects of biopharmaceutics and developments in this field from mid-1950s to late 1970s. It critically addresses issues related to fundamental processes in oral drug absorption such as the complex interplay between drugs and the gastrointestinal system. Special emphasis is placed on drug dissolution and permeability phenomena as well as on the mathematical modeling of oral drug absorption. The review ends with regulatory aspects of oral drug absorption focusing on bioequivalence studies and the US Food and Drug Administration and European Medicines Agency guidelines dealing with Biopharmaceutics Classification System and Biopharmaceutic Drug Disposition Classification System.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panos Macheras
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics-Pharmacokinetics, Faculty of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens 15771, Greece.
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Zhang Y, Chen J, Zhang G, Lu J, Yan H, Liu K. Sustained release of ibuprofen from polymeric micelles with a high loading capacity of ibuprofen in media simulating gastrointestinal tract fluids. REACT FUNCT POLYM 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reactfunctpolym.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Maroni A, Zema L, Del Curto MD, Foppoli A, Gazzaniga A. Oral colon delivery of insulin with the aid of functional adjuvants. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2012; 64:540-56. [PMID: 22086142 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2011.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oral colon delivery is currently considered of importance not only for the treatment of local pathologies, such as primarily inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), but also as a means of accomplishing systemic therapeutic goals. Although the large bowel fails to be ideally suited for absorption processes, it may indeed offer a number of advantages over the small intestine, including a long transit time, lower levels of peptidases and higher responsiveness to permeation enhancers. Accordingly, it has been under extensive investigation as a possible strategy to improve the oral bioavailability of peptide and protein drugs. Because of a strong underlying rationale, most of these studies have focused on insulin. In the present review, the impact of key anatomical and physiological characteristics of the colon on its viability as a protein release site is discussed. Moreover, the main formulation approaches to oral colon targeting are outlined along with the design features and performance of insulin-based devices.
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Weitschies W, Wilson CG. In vivo imaging of drug delivery systems in the gastrointestinal tract. Int J Pharm 2011; 417:216-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2011.07.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2011] [Revised: 07/19/2011] [Accepted: 07/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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