Lipomer of doxorubicin hydrochloride for enhanced oral bioavailability

Effect of Tight Junction-Modulating FCIGRL-Modified Peptides on the Intestinal Absorption of Doxorubicin in Rats

Doxorubicin is a potent chemotherapy drug, but its oral bioavailability is limited due to its low membrane permeability. Thus, absorption enhancers such as zonula occludens toxin and its six-mer fragment, FCIGRL, have been studied to address this issue. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of four peptides (Pep1, Pep2, Pep3, and Pep4) derived from FCIGRL and investigate the changes in the absorption of doxorubicin, to propose an absorption enhancer for doxorubicin. Pep1 is a modified version of FCIGRL in which the hydroxyl group at the C-terminus is replaced with an amino group. Pep2 is a modified Pep1 in which cysteine is replaced with N3-substituted dipropionic acid. Pep3 and Pep4 are Pep2-modified homodimers. Pharmacokinetic analysis was performed in rats after the intraduodenal administration of doxorubicin solutions containing each FCIGRL-modified peptide and the stabilizer levan or benzalkonium chloride (BC). The results showed that Pep3 and Pep4 administered with levan each significantly increased the intestinal absorption of doxorubicin, as did Pep2 administered with levan/BC. In particular, 10 mg·kg-1 of Pep4 with levan significantly increased the area under the curve (AUC)0-240min of doxorubicin by 2.38-fold (p < 0.01) and the peak concentration (Cmax) by 3.30-fold (p < 0.01) compared to the control solution. The study findings indicate that Pep2, Pep3, and primarily Pep4 are novel absorption enhancers that can open tight junctions for doxorubicin, and the effectiveness of the peptides was directly affected by the presence of levan or levan/BC.

Sonophoresis-assisted transdermal delivery of antimigraine-loaded nanolipomers: Radio-tracking, histopathological assessment and in-vivo biodistribution study

Migraine is a disabling neurovascular polygenic disorder affecting life quality with escorted socioeconomic encumbrances. Herein, we investigated the consolidated amalgamation of passive lipomer approach alongside active sonophoresis assisted transdermal delivery of zolmitriptan (ZT) using high frequency ultrasound pre-treatment protocol to mitigate migraine attacks. A modified nanoprecipitation technique was utilized to prepare zolmitriptan loaded lipomers (ZTL) adopting 23 factorial design. Three factors were scrutinized namely lipid type, ZT: lipid ratio and ZT: Gantrez® ratio. The prepared systems were characterized regarding particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency and in-vitro release studies. The best achieved ZTL system was evaluated for ZT- Gantrez® intermolecular interactions, drug crystallinity, morphology, ex-vivo permeation and histopathological examination. Finally, a comparative in-vivo biodistribution study through radiotracking technique using Technetium-99 m was adopted. L2 was the best-achieved ZTL system with respect to spherical particle size (390.7 nm), zeta-potential (-30.8 mV), PDI (0.2), entrapment efficiency (86.2%), controlled release profile, flux (147.13 μg/cm2/hr) and enhancement ratio (5.67). Histopathological studies proved the safety of L2 system upon application on skin. L2 revealed higher brain Cmax (12.21 %ID/g), prolonged brain MRT (8.67 hr), prolonged brain 0.23 hr), significantly high relative bioavailability (2929.36%) and similar brain Tmax (0.5 hr) compared to I.V. route with higher brain/blood ratio. Thus, sonophoresis assisted transdermal delivery of ZTL offers a propitious alterative to alleviate migraine symptoms.

Hydrocortisone-Loaded Lipid-Polymer Hybrid Nanoparticles for Controlled Topical Delivery: Formulation Design Optimization and In Vitro and In Vivo Appraisal

The barrier functionalities of the skin offer a major but not insuperable hindrance for fabrication of skin delivery effective systems. This work aimed to develop an optimized lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticle and assess the skin delivery effectiveness of hydrocortisone (9.872 ± 0.361 × 10^-3 cm²/h) of a drug through the skin from an optimized formulation when compared with a drug solution. Meanwhile, histological examination after topical application of the optimized formulation showed a safe increase in epidermal thickness. In vivo, the optimized formulation showed promising anti-inflammatory activity in a croton oil-induced ear rosacea model. As an excellent anti-inflammatory agent, these findings propose that the use of lipomers could be a promising strategy to improve the topical effectiveness of hydrocortisone acetate (HCA) against inflammatory diseases. Collectively, these results support our view that lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles can proficiently deliver hydrocortisone to the skin in treating skin inflammatory conditions.

Phenylboronic acid-modified polymaleic anhydride-F127 micelles for pH-activated targeting delivery of doxorubicin

Phenylboronic acid (PBA) is a tumor-targeting molecule which selectively recognizes sialic acid (SA) overexpressed in tumors. In the study, PBA, F127 and ethanolamine were conjugated with poly(maleic anhydride) by one-step reaction to form amphiphilic polymer for doxorubicin encapsulation. Two drug-carrying micelles with different mass ratio of polymer to drug were prepared by dialysis method to study effect of PBA on doxorubicin release, tumor-targeting and antitumor activity. The study results showed that doxorubicin release from the formulations was acid-sensitive and affected by the polymer dosage, and its acid-induced release behavior improved its insertion into DNA base pairs. Formulation with high polymer dosage showed better tumor targeting and antitumor activity, and activity of inhibiting HepG2 with higher content of SA-containing glycosphingolipids was higher than that of anti-B16. In vivo studies on the activity of B16-bearing mice showed that the doxorubicin-loaded micelles could inhibit the tumor growth and were safer than free doxorubicin. Thus, the PBA-modified nano-polymer micelles have potential biomedical applications due to their nanostructure and tumor-targeting ability.

Development and evaluation of core-shell nanocarrier system for enhancing the cytotoxicity of doxorubicin/ metformin combination against breast cancer cell line

Breast cancer is the most invasive and life-threatening cancer in women. The treatment options are usually a combination of mastectomy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy and chemotherapy. As a standard practice, doxorubicin (DOX) is one of the commonly used drugs for breast cancer treatment. However, DOX is known to have many harmful adverse effects including its cardiotoxicity. Hence, recent reports used metformin (MET), an anti-diabetic drug, as an adjuvant therapy to decrease the severity of DOX's adverse effects and to improve its ultimate therapeutic outcome. The current study is aimed at co-loading and enhancing the encapsulation efficiency of the hydrophilic DOX and MET in poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanocapsules (NCs) with oil core for breast cancer treatment. The NCs were developed by single emulsification-solvent diffusion technique, and were optimized through using two types of oils, pluronics and PLGA (50:50) of different molecular weights followed by various physicochemical characterizations. The obtained DOX/MET-loaded NCs showed the size and polydispersity index (PDI) of 203.0 ± 3.4 nm and 0.081 ± 0.03, respectively with a surface charge of -2.15 ± 0.2 mV. The entrapment efficiency of DOX and MET were about 93.7% ± 2.9 and 70% ± 1.6, respectively. The developed PLGA core-shell NCs successfully sustained the DOX/MET release for more than 30 days. The in-vitro results showed a significant enhancement in DOX cytotoxic effect as well as a duplication in its apoptotic effect upon addition of MET for both free DOX/MET combination and DOX/MET-loaded PLGA NCs against MCF-7. Besides, flow cytometry demonstrated that the DOX/MET-loaded NCs possess their antitumor effect by preventing DNA replication and cell division. This study provides a promising facile, rapid and reproducible single emulsification-solvent diffusion technique for improving the encapsulation and release of hydrophilic drugs in nanocapsules for biomedical applications.

Cyclodextrins-modified metallic nanoparticles for effective cancer therapy

Cancer, a disease of unknown origin is the second most common reason of death worldwide after heart attacks and therefore is a major threat to human beings. Currently, chemotherapy is the only approach for delivering anti-cancer drugs but shows severe systemic toxicities such as alopecia, loss of appetite, anemia, gastric irritation, neurotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Additionally, chemotherapeutics fails to achieve the expected therapeutic outcome due to their limited solubility, in-vivo instability and lack of targeting efficiency. Encapsulating drugs in metallic nanoparticles like gold, silver and metal oxides (magnetic) help to overcome limitations of chemotherapy and transports anti-cancer drugs effectively at the targeted site due to the advantages such as optimal size, surface morphology, higher conductivity and in-vivo stability. Moreover, these metals can be triggered externally using NIR radiations or magnetic field thereby improving the drug release kinetics. Some frequently used chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin, paclitaxel, methotrexate, etc. degrade rapidly due to their hydrophobic nature and show in-vivo instability. Cyclodextrin offers structural compatibility for encapsulating such hydrophobic drugs and improves their loading capacity, solubility and stability without showing any systemic toxicities. Therefore, researchers designed cyclodextrin-complexed metallic nanoparticles as a novel platform to overcome pitfalls of conventional chemotherapy like gastric irritation, hair loss, neurotoxicity, etc. This review article provides detail insight of metallic nanocarriers containing cyclodextrin-encapsulated anti-cancer agents for effective cancer therapy. It can be concluded that this novel approach holds a great potential for clinical application in cancer diagnosis, treatment with minimum toxicity and maximum efficacy.

Molecular Mechanism of Ultrasound-Induced Structural Defects in Liposomes: A Nonequilibrium Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study

The use of ultrasound in combination with liposomes is a promising approach to improve drug delivery. To achieve an optimal drug release rate, it is important to understand how ultrasound induces pathways on the liposome surface where drugs can be released from the liposome. To this end, we carry out large-scale ultrasound-induced molecular dynamics simulations for three single lipid component liposomes formed from the commonly used phospholipids: 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), 1,2-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), or phosphatidylcholine (POPC). The results show that ultrasound induces the detachment of two leaflets of the DOPC surface, suggesting that the drug release pathway may be through the low lipid packing areas on the stretched surface. In contrast, ultrasound induces pore formation on the surface of DPPC and DOPC, where drugs could escape from the liposomes. While the leaflet detachment and transient pore formation are the mechanisms of DOPC and DPPC, respectively, in both liquid-ordered and liquid-disordered phases, the leaflet detachment mechanism is switched to the transient pore formation mechanism on going from the liquid-ordered phase to the liquid-disordered phase in the POPC liposome. By adding 30% mol cholesterol, the leaflet detachment mechanism is observed in all liposomes. We found that the molecular origin that determines a mechanism is the competition between the intraleaflet and interleaflet interacting energy of lipids. The connection to experimental and theoretical modeling is discussed in some detail.

Lactoferrin/phenylboronic acid-functionalized hyaluronic acid nanogels loading doxorubicin hydrochloride for targeting glioma

Herein, lactoferrin (Lf)/phenylboronic acid (PBA)-functionalized hyaluronic acid nanogels crosslinked with disulfide-bond crosslinker was developed as a reduction-sensitive dual-targeting glioma therapeutic platform for doxorubicin hydrochloride (DOX) delivery (Lf-DOX/PBNG). Spherical Lf-DOX/PBNG with optimized physicochemical properties was obtained, and it could rapidly release the encapsulated DOX under high glutathione concentration. Moreover, enhanced cytotoxicity, superior cellular uptake efficiency, and significantly improved brain permeability of Lf-DOX/PBNG were observed in cytological studies compared with those of DOX solution, DOX-loaded PBA functionalized nanogels (DOX/PBNG), and Lf modified DOX-loaded nanogels (Lf-DOX/NG). The pharmacokinetic study exhibited that the area under the curve of DOX/PBNG, Lf-DOX/NG, and Lf-DOX/PBNG increased by 8.12, 4.20 and 4.32 times compared with that of DOX solution, respectively. The brain accumulation of Lf-DOX/PBNG was verified in biodistribution study to be 12.37 and 4.67 times of DOX solution and DOX/PBNG, respectively. These findings suggest that Lf-DOX/PBNG is an excellent candidate for achieving effective glioma targeting.

Enhancing Safety and Efficacy by Altering the Toxic Aggregated State of Amphotericin B in Lipidic Nanoformulations

The toxicity of Amphotericin B (AmB) is contributed by the small, water-soluble aggregates of the drug. Hence, AmB lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LIPOMER), comprising stearate lipids with a hydrophilic polymer Gantrez (GZ), and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), comprising only stearates, were prepared with the objective of monomerizing AmB. While intercalation of stearates with the hydrophobic polyene chain could hinder AmB-AmB interactions, enabling monomerization, it was hypothesized that GZ could aid in the stabilization of the monomers through hydrophilic interactions. AmB LIPOMERs and SLNs, prepared by nanoprecipitation, exhibited an average size of 350-500 nm with negative ζ potential. Polyglyceryl-6-distearate (PGDS) SLN exhibited maximum monomerization, with the highest peak IV (410 nm) to peak I (350 nm) ratio in the UV-visible spectrum. In total contrast, LIPOMERs and GZ nanoparticles revealed a hypsochromic shifted peak I between 321 and 324 nm, indicative of AmB super-aggregate formation. Super-aggregates, which result due to condensation of multiple aggregates with monomers, were attributed to extensive GZ-AmB and GZ-GZ interactions and could provide advantages of enhanced thermodynamic stability, with safety and efficacy similar to the monomeric form. Safety was confirmed by low and comparable erythrocyte toxicity exhibited by the LIPOMERs and SLNs. An in vitro efficacy study of PGDS LIPOMER and SLN against intracellular amastigotes revealed significantly lower IC₅₀ values, which translated to a 7.1- and 6.1-fold enhancement in efficacy compared to commercial nanoformulations Amfocare (micellar AmB) and 1.79- and 1.54-fold enhancement in efficacy compared to Fungisome (liposomal AmB). High efficacy coupled with a higher selectivity index indicated the superiority of the developed AmB nanoformulations and substantiated that altering the toxic aggregated state of AmB can offer a promising approach for the design of safe and efficacious AmB lipidic nanoformulations.

Inhalable hybrid nanocarriers for respiratory disorders

Rapid advancements in the field of drug delivery lead to increased use of inhalable formulations as they are cost effective, noninvasive, and targeted and have less systemic side effects and above all better patient compliance. Development of inhalable hybrid systems has offered manifold advantages to this area of drug delivery. Inclusion of polymer and lipid, inorganic and organic substances, and metallic nanoparticles all of them aim to achieve codelivery of drugs which are incompatible in single phase systems. The recent progress in nanotechnology has gained momentum toward delivery of siRNA and miRNA and vaccines to the targeted site. The present work is an attempt to compile all the hybrid and inhalable systems to give readers an overview toward this delivery system as much more work is needed in this field to achieve better resolution of inflammatory disorders.

An update on polymer-lipid hybrid systems for improving oral drug delivery

INTRODUCTION

A promising approach that has recently emerged to overcome the complex biobarriers and interrelated challenges associated with oral drug absorption is to combine the benefits of polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers within one hybrid system. This multifaceted formulation strategy has given rise to a plethora of polymer-lipid hybrid (PLH) systems with varying nanostructures and biological activities, all of which have demonstrated the ability to improve the biopharmaceutical performance of a wide range of challenging therapeutics.

AREAS COVERED

The multitude of polymers that can be combined with lipids to exert a synergistic effect for oral drug delivery have been identified, reviewed and critically evaluated. Specific focus is attributed to preclinical studies performed within the past 5 years that have elucidated the role and mechanism of the polymer phase in altering the oral absorption of encapsulated therapeutics.

EXPERT OPINION

The potential of PLH systems has been clearly identified; however, improved understanding of the structure-activity relationship between PLH systems and oral absorption is fundamental for translating this promising delivery approach into a clinically relevant formulation. Advancing research within this field to identify optimal polymer, lipid combinations and engineering conditions for specific therapeutics are therefore encouraged.

Stereocomplex micelle loaded with paclitaxel for enhanced therapy of breast cancer in an orthotopic mouse model

Micelles are promising a nano drug carrier for cancer therapy. However, their application is often limited due to the instability of them in vivo. Herein, we reported the development of stereocomplex micelle (SCM) based on amphiphilic dextran-block-polylactide (Dex-b-PLA) that could improve the stability of micelles, reduce the early release of loaded drugs and target the breast cancer through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect for enhanced breast cancer therapy. The SCM were fabricated from the equimolar mixture of the enantiomeric Dex-b-PLA copolymers. Paclitaxel (PTX) as a model anti breast cancer drug was loaded in the SCM, noted as SCM/PTX. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic laser scattering (DLS) showed the diameter of SCM/PTX was below100 nm, which was suitable sizes for the EPR effect. The release kinetics of SCM/PTX exhibited that the release of PTX was obviously slow down and showed constant release. In the in vitro antitumor test, the SCM/PTX could effectively suppress the viability of 4T1 cells, which was demonstrated by the MTT assay. Moreover, the SCM/PTX could reduce the distribution of PTX at normal organs and obviously increase the accumulation of PTX at tumor sites. The circulation time of SCM/PTX was also obviously enhanced compared to free PTX. In the in vivo antitumor test, the SCM/PTX effectively inhibited the progression of 4T1 breast cancer in the orthotopic mouse model, as demonstrated by decreased tumor growth and increased apoptosis and necrosis areas within tumor tissues. In addition, the toxic side effects of PTX was also alleviated in the SCM/PTX group. This study introduced a stable micelle system that passive targeted the tumor for enhanced breast cancer therapy.

Lipomers (Lipid-polymer Hybrid Particles) of Vardenafil Hydrochloride: a Promising Dual Platform for Modifying the Drug Release Rate and Enhancing Its Oral Bioavailability

Vardenafil hydrochloride is commonly used for the curing of erectile dysfunction. VAR suffers certain limitations: (i) short elimination half-life (4-5 h), (ii) low aqueous solubility (0.11 mg/mL), (iii) susceptibility to extensive first-pass metabolism and drug efflux transporters (P-glycoprotein), and (iv) limited (15%) oral bioavailability. The current study focused on the development of VAR lipomers as promising modified release systems able to enhance oral bioavailability. VAR-lipomers (lipid-polymer complexes) were successfully developed by a modified precipitation technique employing a lipid (polyglyceryl-6-distearate or glyceryl tristearate) and an amphiphilic polymer (Gantrez®). Three VAR:lipid ratios [1:1, 1:2, and 1:3] and three VAR:Gantrez® ratios [4:1, 2:1, and 1:1] were investigated. Solid-state characterization studies involved differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The systems were assessed for particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), zeta-potential, VAR entrapment-efficiency (EE%), morphology, and VAR released % after 2 h (Q_2h) and 8 h (Q_8h). The best-achieved system (the highest desirability) was promoted for pharmacokinetic studies in fasted rabbits. Statistical analysis of data revealed that L9 system (PGDS, VAR, and Gantrez®; 3:1:1, respectively) had the highest desirability (0.85) with respect to spherical particle size (622.15 nm), PDI (0.11), zeta-potential (-27.90 mV), EE% (62.80%), Q_2h (43.45%), and Q_8h (77.40%). With respect to Levitra® tablets, the significantly higher relative bioavailability (170%), delayed T_max, and extended MRT_(0-∞) clarified the dual ability of L9 system. Lipomers are emerging systems capable of modifying the rate of VAR release and promoting its oral bioavailability.

Exploring Peyer's Patch Uptake as a Strategy for Targeted Lung Delivery of Polymeric Rifampicin Nanoparticles

Uptake of nanoparticles through Peyer's Patches following oral administration could enable translocation through lymph to lymphatic organs like the lungs. An important consideration, however, is nanosize and particle hydrophobicity. Furthermore, as delivering the nanoparticles to the intestine where the Peyer's Patches are localized is important, their intact and rapid transit through the stomach into the intestine is highly desirable. We report hydrophobization of mucoadhesive Rifampicin-GantrezAN-119 nanoparticles (GzNP) using a hydrophobic polymer, ethyl cellulose (EC), with the objectives of augmenting Peyer's Patch uptake due to enhanced hydrophobicity and increased intestinal localization as a result of decreased mucoadhesion. RIF-Gantrez-EC nanoparticles (ECGzNP2) exhibited >13% RIF loading and an average particle size of 400-450 nm, which is appropriate for translation through lymph following Peyer's Patch uptake. Higher contact angle (67.3 ± 3.5° vs 30.3 ± 2.1°) and lower mucoadhesion (30.7 ± 4.8 g vs 87.0 ± 3.0 g) of ECGzNP2 over GzNP confirmed hydrophobization and lower mucoadhesion. Fluorescence photomicrographs of intraduodenally administered coumarin-labeled RIF-NP in rats demonstrated higher Peyer's Patch uptake with ECGzNP2, while the increased lung/plasma RIF ratio signified lymph mediated lung targeting. The gastrointestinal transit study in rats, which revealed a significantly higher intestine-to-stomach accumulation ratio with ECGzNP2 (3.4) compared to GzNP (1.0) [ p < 0.05], confirmed availability of the NP in the intestine for Peyer's Patch uptake. Such uptake enabled 182.4 ± 22.6% increase in relative bioavailability, a ∼2-fold higher plasma AUC/MIC ratio and significantly higher lung concentration with ECGzNP2, thereby proposing better efficacy. A significantly higher lung/liver ratio with ECGzNP2 also suggested lower hepatic exposure. The repeated dose 28-day oral toxicity study demonstrated the safety of the nanocarrier and reduced hepatotoxicity with ECGzNP2 compared to RIF. We hereby demonstrate uptake of orally administered NP through Peyer's Patches as a feasible strategy for lung targeting.

Nanoformulations of doxorubicin: how far have we come and where do we go from here?

Nanotechnology, focused on discovery and development of new pharmaceutical products is known as nanopharmacology, and one research area this branch is engaged in are nanopharmaceuticals. The importance of being nano has been particularly emphasized in scientific areas dealing with nanomedicine and nanopharmaceuticals. Nanopharmaceuticals, their routes of administration, obstacles and solutions concerning their improved application and enhanced efficacy have been briefly yet comprehensively described. Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide and evergrowing number of scientific research on the topic only confirms that the needs have not been completed yet and that there is a wide platform for improvement. This is undoubtedly true for nanoformulations of an anticancer drug doxorubicin, where various nanocarrriers were given an important role to reduce the drug toxicity, while the efficacy of the drug was supposed to be retained or preferably enhanced. Therefore, we present an interdisciplinary comprehensive overview of interdisciplinary nature on nanopharmaceuticals based on doxorubicin and its nanoformulations with valuable information concerning trends, obstacles and prospective of nanopharmaceuticals development, mode of activity of sole drug doxorubicin and its nanoformulations based on different nanocarriers, their brief descriptions of biological activity through assessing in vitro and in vivo behavior.

Controlled Drug Delivery by Polylactide Stereocomplex Micelle for Cervical Cancer Chemotherapy

A stable doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded stereocomplex micelle drug delivery system was developed via the stereocomplex interaction between enantiomeric 4-armed poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(D-lactide) and poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(L-lactide) to realize control drug release and improve tumor cell uptake for efficient cervical carcinoma therapy. All these DOX-loaded micelles including poly(D-lactide)-based micelle (PDM/DOX), poly(L-lactide)-based micelle (PLM/DOX), and stereocomplex micelle (SCM/DOX) exhibited appropriate sizes of ∼100 nm for the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. In addition, compared to PDM/DOX and PLM/DOX, SCM/DOX exhibited the slowest DOX releaser, highest tumor cell uptake and the most efficient tumor cell suppression in vitro. Moreover, the excellent tumor inhibiting rates of the DOX-loaded micelles, especially SCM/DOX, were verified in the U14 cervical carcinoma mouse model. Increased tumorous apoptosis and necrosis areas were observed in the DOX-loaded micelles treatment groups, especially the SCM/DOX group. In addition, all these DOX-loaded micelles obviously alleviated the systemic toxicity of DOX. As a result, SCM can be a promising drug delivery system for the future therapy of cervical carcinoma.

The effect of particle shape on cellular interaction and drug delivery applications of micro- and nanoparticles

Encapsulation of therapeutic agents in nanoparticles offers several benefits including improved bioavailability, site specific delivery, reduced toxicity and in vivo stability of proteins and nucleotides over conventional delivery options. These benefits are consequence of distinct in vivo pharmacokinetic and biodistribution profile of nanoparticles, which is dictated by the complex interplay of size, surface charge and surface hydrophobicity. Recently, particle shape has been identified as a new physical parameter which has exerted tremendous impact on cellular uptake and biodistribution, thereby in vivo performance of nanoparticles. Improved therapeutic efficacy of anticancer agents using non-spherical particles is the recent development in the field. Additionally, immunological response of nanoparticles was also altered when antigens were loaded in non-spherical nanovehicles. The apparent impact of particle shape inspired the new research in the field of drug delivery. The present review therefore details the research in this field. The review focuses on methods of fabrication of particles of non-spherical geometries and impact of particle shape on cellular uptake, biodistribution, tumor targeting and production of immunological responses.

Paliperidone-Loaded Nanolipomer System for Sustained Delivery and Enhanced Intestinal Permeation: Superiority to Polymeric and Solid Lipid Nanoparticles

Paliperidone (PPD) is the most recent second-generation atypical antipsychotic approved for the treatment of schizophrenia. An immediate release dose causes extrapyramidal side effects. In this work, a novel nanolipomer carrier system for PPD with enhanced intestinal permeability and sustained release properties has been developed and optimized. PPD was successfully encapsulated into a lipomer consisting of a specific combination of biocompatible materials including poly-ε-caprolactone as a polymeric core, Lipoid S75, and Gelucire® 50/13 as a lipid shell and polyvinyl alcohol as a stabilizing agent. The lipomer system was characterized by dynamic light scattering, TEM, DSC, and FTIR. An optimized lipomer formulation possessed a particle size of 168 nm, PDI of 0.2, zeta potential of -23 mV and an encapsulation efficiency of 87.27% ± 0.098. Stability in simulated gastrointestinal fluids investigated in terms of particle size, zeta potential, and encapsulation efficiency measurements ensured the integrity of the nanoparticles upon oral administration. PPD-loaded nanolipomers demonstrated a superior sustained release behavior up to 24 h and better ex vivo intestinal permeation for PPD compared to the corresponding polymeric and solid lipid nanoparticles and drug suspension. The in vitro hemocompatibility test on red blood cells revealed no hemolytic effect of PPD-loaded lipomers which reflects its safety. The elaborated nanohybrid carrier system represents a promising candidate for enhancing the absorption of PPD providing a 2.6-fold increase in the intestinal permeation flux compared to the drug suspension while maintaining a sustained release behavior. It is a convenient alternative to the commercially available dosage form of PPD.

Doxorubicin-loaded liposomes: enhancing the oral bioavailability by modulation of physicochemical characteristics

Aim: In this study, the effects of liposome characteristics on oral absorption of doxorubicin, as a hydrophilic low-permeability drug, were investigated. Materials & methods: Different doxorubicin-loaded liposomes were prepared, characterized and orally administered to 18 groups of rats. Plasma concentrations of doxorubicin and its aglycone metabolite were measured, and Caco-2 uptake and transport of optimum liposomes were investigated. Results: After studying different factors, a fourfold increase in oral bioavailability was achieved with the non-PEGylated, 120-nm-sized positively charged rigid liposomes (lipid to drug ratio = 10). The extent of drug’s first-pass metabolism as well as endocytosis of nanoparticles were markedly affected by liposomal formulation. Conclusion: Oral absorption is highly dependent on liposomal properties, and optimum formulations are effective for low-permeability drugs.

In situ hybrid nano drug delivery system (IHN-DDS) of antiretroviral drug for simultaneous targeting to multiple viral reservoirs: An in vivo proof of concept

We report In situ hybrid nano drug delivery system (IHN-DDS) of nevirapine (NVP) for simultaneous targeting to multiple viral reservoirs. The IHN-DDS system was comprised of a preconcentrate containing NVP, lipid, and a surfactant which when diluted with water resulted in the formation of nanoparticles of size range varied from 70 to 1100nm. Transmission electron microscopy and small angle neutron scattering studies of pellet and supernatant obtained after centrifugation of the IHN-DDS revealed spherical shaped nanoparticles and assembled structures, respectively. Uniform distribution of the NVP in lipid nanoparticles was confirmed by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Biodistribution studies in rats showed significant enhancement of NVP concentration of about 6.1, 5.8 and 3.7 fold in the liver, spleen, and brain, respectively after intravenous administration of IHN-DDS systems compared to plain NVP solution. In conclusion, IHN-DDS systems could be a promising approach for simultaneous multisite targeting and could provide therapeutic benefits in complete eradication of HIV infections.

Stereocomplex micelle efficiently transports Doxorubicin for enhanced lymphoma suppression in vivo

The application of Doxorubicin (DOX) in the chemotherapy for lymphoma is seriously hampered by the side effects of DOX, especially the cardiotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. Nanoscale micelle as a promising drug delivery system has gained more and more interest in malignancy chemotherapy. In this study, we successfully fabricated DOX-loaded stereocomplex micelle (SCM/DOX) from the equimolar mixture of the enantiomeric four-armed poly(ethylene glycol)-polylactide (PDM and PLM) copolymers. The SCM/DOX showed proper hydrodynamic size of ~90 nm and slow DOX release in phosphate-buffered saline at pH 7.4. The antitumor activities of DOX, PDM/DOX, PLM/DOX, and SCM/DOX toward lymphoma cells were tested in vitro and in vivo. Our data demonstrated that the SCM/DOX more effectively inhibited the cell proliferation than PDM/DOX, PLM/DOX, and free DOX in vitro. In the in vivo antitumor test, the SCM/DOX more effectively inhibited the growth of EL4 lymphoma, too. In addition, the body weight loss caused by SCM/DOX was alleviated than DOX. More importantly, the cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity caused by DOX in mice were obviously attenuated compared to the free DOX treatment group. Taken together, all the results indicated that the SCM/DOX could inhibit the growth of EL4 lymphoma cells and attenuate the toxicity of DOX more efficiently, which suggested SCM/DOX was promising for the prevention and treatment of lymphoma.

Self-assembled nanoparticles based on amphiphilic chitosan derivative and arginine for oral curcumin delivery

Curcumin (Cur) is a striking anticancer agent, but its low aqueous solubility, poor absorption, hasty metabolism, and elimination limit its oral bioavailability and consequently hinder its development as a drug. To redress these limitations, amphiphilic chitosan (CS) conjugate with improved mucoadhesion and solubility over a wider pH range was developed by modification with hydrophobic acrylonitrile (AN) and hydrophilic arginine (Arg); the synthesized conjugate (AN–CS–Arg), which was well characterized by Fourier transform infrared and ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Results of critical aggregation concentration revealed that the AN–CS–Arg conjugate had low critical aggregation concentration and was prone to form self-assembled nanoparticles (NPs) in aqueous medium. Cur-encapsulated AN–CS–Arg NPs (AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs) were developed by a simple sonication method and characterized for the physicochemical parameters such as zeta potential, particle size, and drug encapsulation. The results showed that zeta potential of the prepared NPs was 40.1±2.81 mV and the average size was ~218 nm. A considerable improvement in the aqueous solubility of Cur was observed after encapsulation into AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs. With the increase in Cur concentration, loading efficiency increased but encapsulation efficiency decreased. The in vitro release profile exhibited sustained release pattern from the AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs in typical biological buffers. The ex vivo mucoadhesion study revealed that AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs had greater mucoadhesion than the control CS NPs. Compared with free Cur solution, AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs showed stronger dose-dependent cytotoxicity against HT-29 cells. In addition, it was observed that cell uptake of AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs was much higher compared with free Cur. Furthermore, the in vivo pharmacokinetic results in rats demonstrated that the AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs could remarkably improve the oral bioavailability of Cur. Therefore, the developed AN–CS–Arg/Cur NPs might be a promising nano-candidate for oral delivery of Cur.

In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluations of Lipid Anti-Cancer Nanoformulations: Insights and Assessment of Bioavailability Enhancement

Lipid-based nanoformulations have been extensively investigated for improving oral efficacy of plethora of drugs. Chemotherapeutic agents remain a preferred option for effective management of cancer; however, most chemotherapeutic agents suffer from limitation of poor oral bioavailability that is associated with their physicochemical properties. Drug delivery via lipid-based nanosystems possesses strong rational and potential for improving oral bioavailability of such anti-cancer molecules through various mechanisms, viz. improving their gut solubilisation owing to micellization, improving mucosal permeation, improving lymphatic uptake, inhibiting intestinal metabolism and/or inhibiting P-glycoprotein efflux of molecules in the gastrointestinal tract. Various in vitro characterization techniques have been reported in literature that aid in getting insights into mechanisms of lipid-based nanodevices in improving oral efficacy of anti-cancer drugs. The review focuses on different characterization techniques that can be employed for evaluation of lipid-based nanosystems and their role in effective anti-cancer drug delivery.

Polyethylene sebacate doxorubicin nanoparticles: role of carbohydrate anchoring on in vitro and in vivo anticancer efficacy

We report carbohydrate-anchored polyethylene sebacate (PES)-Gantrez® AN 119 Doxorubicin hydrochloride (Dox) nanoparticles (NPs) for enhanced anticancer efficacy. The carbohydrates Arabinogalactan (AGn), an adjuvant in anticancer chemotherapy and pullulan (Pul) reported to promote collagen synthesis, were selected as ligands. PES Dox NPs of an average size around 200 nm, greater than 20% w/w Dox loading and negative zeta potential were anchored with Pul, AGn, and Pul-AGn combination by simple incubation. Increase in particle size and zeta potential confirmed carbohydrate anchoring. FTIR confirmed ionic complexation of Dox and Gantrez® AN 119. DSC and XRD demonstrated amorphization of Dox. Higher Dox release in pH 5.5 as compared with pH 7.4 is beneficial for reduced systemic toxicity and enhanced drug release in tumors. Good in vitro serum stability and low hemolysis revealed suitability for intravenous administration. All NPs revealed circulation longevity in normal rats. Pul NPs revealed superior anticancer efficacy in vitro and an 11-fold enhancement in uptake in MCF-7 breast cancer cells. The greater efficacy in vivo is attributed to possible pullulan-mediated integrin receptor uptake and interaction with tumor collagen. Histopathology confirmed safety and suggested promise of Pul NPs in improved anticancer efficacy.

Stereocomplex micelle from nonlinear enantiomeric copolymers efficiently transports antineoplastic drug

Nanoscale polymeric micelles have attracted more and more attention as a promising nanocarrier for controlled delivery of antineoplastic drugs. Herein, the doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded poly(D-lactide)-based micelle (PDM/DOX), poly(L-lactide)-based micelle (PLM/DOX), and stereocomplex micelle (SCM/DOX) from the equimolar mixture of the enantiomeric four-armed poly(ethylene glycol)-polylactide (PEG-PLA) copolymers were successfully fabricated. In phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at pH 7.4, SCM/DOX exhibited the smallest hydrodynamic diameter (D h) of 90 ± 4.2 nm and the slowest DOX release compared with PDM/DOX and PLM/DOX. Moreover, PDM/DOX, PLM/DOX, and SCM/DOX exhibited almost stable D hs of around 115, 105, and 90 nm at above normal physiological condition, respectively, which endowed them with great potential in controlled drug delivery. The intracellular DOX fluorescence intensity after the incubation with the laden micelles was different degrees weaker than that incubated with free DOX · HCl within 12 h, probably due to the slow DOX release from micelles. As the incubation time reached to 24 h, all the cells incubated with the laden micelles, especially SCM/DOX, demonstrated a stronger intracellular DOX fluorescence intensity than free DOX · HCl-cultured ones. More importantly, all the DOX-loaded micelles, especially SCM/DOX, exhibited potent antineoplastic efficacy in vitro, excellent serum albumin-tolerance stability, and satisfactory hemocompatibility. These encouraging data indicated that the loading micelles from nonlinear enantiomeric copolymers, especially SCM/DOX, might be promising in clinical systemic chemotherapy through intravenous injection.

Oral and IV dosages of doxorubicin-methotrexate loaded- nanoparticles inhibit progression of oral cancer by down- regulation of matrix Methaloproteinase 2 expression in vivo

Oral cancer is one of the most common and lethal cancers in the world. Combination chemotherapy coupled with nanoparticle drug delivery holds substantial promise in cancer therapy. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of two dosages of our novel pH and temperature sensitive doxorubicin-methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles (DOX-MTX NPs) with attention to the MMP-2 mRNA profile in a 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide induced oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) model in the rat. Our results showed that both IV and oral dosages of DOX-MTX NP caused significant decrease in mRNA levels of MMP-2 compared to the untreated group (p<0.003). Surprisingly, MMP-2 mRNA was not affected in DOX treated compared to cancer group (p>0.05). Our results indicated that IV dosage of MTX-DOX is more effective than free DOX (12 fold) in inhibiting the activity of MMP-2 in OSCCs (P<0.001). Furthermore, MMP-2 mRNA expression in the DOX-MTX treated group showed a significant relation with histopathological changes (P=0.011). Compared to the untreated cancer group, we observed no pathological changes and neither a significant alteration in MMP-2 amount in either of healthy controls that were treated with oral and IV dosages of DOX-MTX NPs whilst cancer group showed a high level of MMP-2 expression compared to healthy controls (p<0.001).Taking together our results indicate that DOX- MTX NPs is a safe chemotherapeutic nanodrug that its oral and IV forms possess potent anti-cancer properties on aggressive tumors like OSCC, possibly by affecting the expression of genes that drive tumor invasion and metastasis.

New formulated "DOX-MTX-loaded nanoparticles" down- regulate HER2 gene expression and improve the clinical outcome in OSCCs model in rat: the effect of IV and oral modalities

BACKGROUND

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) remains as one of the most difficult malignancies to control because of its high propensity for local invasion and cervical lymph node dissemination. In this study, we evaluate the efficacy of our novel pH and temperature sensitive doxorubicin-methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles (DOX-MTX NP) in affecting HER2 expression profile in OSCC model in rat.

RESULTS

DOX-MTX- nanoparticle complexes caused significant decrease in mRNA level of HER2 compared to untreated cancers (p<0.05) and this finding was more pronounced with the IV mode (p<0.000). Surprisingly, HER2 mRNA was not affected in DOX treated as compared to the control group (p>0.05). On the other hand, in the DOX-MTX NP treated group, fewer tumors characterized with advanced stage and decreased HER2 paralleled improved clinical outcome (P<0.05). Moreover, the effectiveness of the oral route in the group treated with nanodrug accounted for the enhanced bioavailability of nanoparticulated DOX-MTX compared to free DOX. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in mRNA level of HER2 (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Influence of HER2 gene expression is a new feature and mechanism of action observed only in dual action DOX-MTX-NPs treated groups. Down-regulation of HER2 mRNA as a promising marker and prognosticator of OSCC adds to the cytotoxic benefits of DOX in its new formulation. Both oral and IV application of this nanodrug could be used, with no preferences in term of their safety or toxicity. As HER2 is expressed abundantly by a wide spectrum of tumors, i DOX-MTX NPs may be useful for a wide-spectrum of lesions. However, molecular mechanisms underlying HER2 down regulation induced by DOX-MTX NPs remain to be addressed.

Nanotechnology in the war against cancer: new arms against an old enemy – a clinical view

ABSTRACT 

Clinical oncology is facing a paradigm shift. A new treatment philosophy is emerging and new targets are appearing that require new active agents. The medical use of nanotechnology – nanomedicine – holds several promising possibilities in the war against cancer. Some of these include: new formats for old drugs, that is, increasing efficacy while diminishing side effects; and new administration routes – that is, dermal, oral and pulmonary. In this overview, we describe some nanoparticles and their medical uses as well as highlight advantages of nanoparticles compared with conventional pharmaceuticals. We also point to some of the many technical challenges and potential risks with using nanotechnology for oncological applications.

DOX-MTX-NPs augment p53 mRNA expression in OSCC model in rat: effects of IV and oral routes

BACKGROUND

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is the sixth most common malignancy worldwide. Cancer development and progression require inactivation of tumor suppressor genes and activation of proto-oncogenes. The well recognized mechanism of action demonstrated for chemotherapeutic agents is induction of apoptosis via reactivation of p53. In this context, we evaluate the efficacy of IV and oral routes of our novel PH and temperature sensitive doxorubicin-methotrexate-loaded nanoparticles (DOX-MTX NP) in affecting p53 profile in an OSCC rat model.

METHODS

In this study, 120 male rats were divided into 8 groups of 15 animals each. The new formulated DOX-MTX NP and free doxorubicin were IV and orally given to rats with 4-nitroquinoline-1- oxide induced OSCC.

RESULTS

RESULTS showed that both DOX and DOX-MTX-NP caused significant increase in mRNA levels of P53 compared to the untreated group (p<0.000). With both DOX and DOX-MTX NP, the IV mode was more effective than the oral (gavage) route (p<0.000). Surprisingly, in oral mode, p53 mRNA was not affected in DOX treated groups (p>0.05), Nonetheless, both IV and oral administration of MTX-DOX NP showed superior activity (~3 fold) over free DOX in reactivation of p53 in OSCC (p<0.000). The effectiveness of oral route in group treated with nanodrug accounts for the enhanced bioavailability of nanoparticulated DOX- MTX compared to free DOX. Moreover, in treated groups, tumor stage was markedly related to the amount of p53 mRNA (p<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Both oral and IV application of our novel nanodrug possesses superior activity over free DOX-in up-regulation of p53 in a OSCC model and this increase in p53 level associated with less aggressive tumors in our study. Although, impressive results obtained with IV form of nanodrug (-21 fold increase in p53 mRNA level) but both forms of nanodrug are effective in OSCC, with less toxicity normal cells.

Multifunctional Poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride)-graft-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin Amphiphilic Copolymer as an Oral High-Performance Delivery Carrier of Tacrolimus

In order to improve oral bioavailability of tacrolimus (FK506), a novel poly(methyl vinyl ether-co-maleic anhydride)-graft-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin amphiphilic copolymer (CD-PVM/MA) is developed, combining the bioadhesiveness of PVM/MA, P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and cytochrome P450-inhibitory effect of CD into one. The FK506-loaded nanoparticles (CD-PVM/MA-NPs) were obtained by solvent evaporation method. The physiochemical properties and intestinal absorption mechanism of FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs were characterized, and the pharmacokinetic behavior was investigated in rats. FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs exhibited nanometer-sized particles of 273.7 nm, with encapsulation efficiency as high as 73.3%. FK506-loaded CD-PVM/MA-NPs maintained structural stability in the simulated gastric fluid, and about 80% FK506 was released within 24 h in the simulated intestinal fluid. The permeability of FK506 was improved dramatically by CD-PVM/MA-NPs compared to its solution, probably due to the synergistic inhibition effect of P-gp and cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). The intestinal biodistribution of fluorescence-labeled CD-PVM/MA-NPs confirmed its good bioadhesion to the rat intestinal wall. Two endocytosis pathways, clathrin- and caveolae-mediated endocytosis, were involved in the cellular uptake of CD-PVM/MA-NPs. The important role of lymphatic transport in nanoparticles' access to the systemic circulation, about half of the contribution to oral bioavailability, was observed in mesenteric lymph duct ligated rats. The AUC0-24 of FK506 loaded in nanoparticles was enhanced up to 20-fold compared to FK506 solutions after oral administration. The present study suggested that the novel multifunctional CD-PVM/MA is a promising efficient oral delivery carrier for FK506, due to its ability in solubilization, inhibitory effects on both P-gp and CYP 3A, high bioadhesion, and sustained release capability.

Therapeutic Efficacy of Orally Delivered Doxorubicin Nanoparticles in Rat Tongue Cancer Induced by 4-Nitroquinoline 1-Oxide

PURPOSE

Oral cancer is one of the most significant cancers in the world, and squamous cell carcinoma makes up about 94% of oral malignancies. The aim of the present study was to compare the efficacy of doxorubicin plus methotrexate - loaded nanoparticles on tongue squamous cell carcinoma induced by 4NQO and compare it with the commercial doxorubicin and methotrexate delivered orally on seventy SD male rats.

METHODS

70 rats were divided into five groups. During the study, the animals were weighed by a digital scale once a week. Number of mortalities was recorded in the data collection forms. At the end of the treatment, biopsy samples were taken from rat tongues in order to evaluate the severity of dysplasia and the extent of cell proliferation. The results were analyzed using ANOVA, descriptive statistics and chi-square test.

RESULTS

No statistically significant difference was found in the mean weight of five groups (p>0.05). No significant relationship was found between groups and mortality rate (P = 0. 39). In addition, there was a significant relationship between groups and the degree of dysplasia (P <0.001). The statistical analysis showed a significant relationship between groups and the rate of cell proliferation (p <0.001).

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study showed that the use of doxorubicin plus methotrexate - loaded nanoparticles orally had more therapeutic effects than commercial doxorubicin plus methotrexate.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel 6-hydroxy-benzo[d][1,3]oxathiol-2-one Schiff bases as potential anticancer agents

With the aim of discovering new anticancer agents, we have designed and synthesized novel 6-hydroxy-benzo[d][1,3]oxathiol-2-one Schiff bases. The synthesis started with the selective nitration at 5-position of 6-hydroxybenzo[d][1,3]oxathiol-2-one (1) leading to the nitro derivative 2. The nitro group of 2 was reduced to give the amino intermediate 3. Schiff bases 4a–r were obtained from coupling reactions between 3 and various benzaldehydes and heteroaromatic aldehydes. All the new compounds were fully identified and characterized by NMR (¹H and ¹³C) and specifically for 4q by X-ray crystallography. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the compounds was evaluated against cancer cell lines (ACP-03, SKMEL-19 and HCT-116) by using MTT assay. Schiff bases 4b and 4o exhibited promising cytotoxicity against ACP-03 and SKMEL-19, respectively, with IC₅₀ values lower than 5 μM. This class of compounds can be considered as a good starting point for the development of new lead molecules in the fight against cancer.

Improved oral absorption of doxorubicin by amphiphilic copolymer of lysine-linked ditocopherol polyethylene glycol 2000 succinate: in vitro characterization and in vivo evaluation

In the previous study, we have synthesized an amphiphilic copolymer of nanostructure-forming material and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor, lysine-linked ditocopherol polyethylene glycol 2000 succinate (PLV2K). The cytotoxicty in vitro and anticancer efficacy in vivo after intravenous administration of DOX-loaded PLV2K micelles (PLV2K-DOX) was found more effective than DOX solution (DOX-Sol). However, its performance and mechanism on oral absorption of doxorubicin are not well understood yet. PLV2K-DOX are spherical micelles with a narrow size distribution of 20.53 ± 2.44 nm. With an in situ intestinal perfusion model, the intestinal absorption potential of PLV2K-DOX was evaluated in comparison with DOX-Sol. PLV2K-DOX was specifically absorbed in duodenum and ileum sites of rats after oral administration. The intestinal absorption rate (Ka) of PLV2K-DOX is 3.19-, 1.61-, and 1.80-fold higher than that of DOX-Sol in duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, respectively. In Caco-2 uptake studies, PLV2K-DOX micelles significantly improve the internalized amount of DOX by P-gp inhibition of free PLV2K copolymer and endocytosis of DOX-loaded nanoparticles. Moreover, PLV2K-DOX micelles improve the membrane permeability of DOX by multiple transcytosis mechanisms, including caveolin-, clathrin-dependent, and caveolin-/clathrin-independent transcytosis in Caco-2 transport studies. However, the transepithelia electrical resistance (TEER) of Caco-2 cellular monolayer is not changed, suggesting no involvement of paracellular transport of PLV2K-DOX. In vivo pharmacokinetics in rats following oral administration demonstrated that PLV2K-DOX demonstrates higher AUC (5.6-fold) and longer t1/2 (1.2-fold) than DOX-Sol. The findings suggest the new PLV2K micelles might provide an effective nanoplatform for oral delivery of anticancer drugs with poor membrane permeability and low oral bioavailability.

Formulation and optimization of itraconazole polymeric lipid hybrid nanoparticles (Lipomer) using Box Behnken design

Background

The objective of the study was to formulate and to investigate the combined influence of 3 independent variables in the optimization of Polymeric lipid hybrid nanoparticles (PLHNs) (Lipomer) containing hydrophobic antifungal drug Itraconazole and to improve intestinal permeability.

Method

The Polymeric lipid hybrid nanoparticle formulation was prepared by the emulsification solvent evaporation method and 3 factor 3 level Box Behnken statistical design was used to optimize and derive a second order polynomial equation and construct contour plots to predict responses. Biodegradable Polycaprolactone, soya lecithin and Poly vinyl alcohol were used to prepare PLHNs. The independent variables selected were lipid to polymer ratio (X₁) Concentration of surfactant (X₂) Concentration of the drug (X₃).

Result

The Box-Behnken design demonstrated the role of the derived equation and contour plots in predicting the values of dependent variables for the preparation and optimization of Itraconazole PLHNs. Itraconazole PLHNs revealed nano size (210 ± 1.8 nm) with an entrapment efficiency of 83 ± 0.6% and negative zeta potential of −11.7 mV and also enhance the permeability of itraconazole as the permeability coefficient (P_app) and the absorption enhancement ratio was higher.

Conclusion

The tunable particle size, surface charge, and favourable encapsulation efficiency with a sustained drug release profile of PLHNs suggesting that it could be promising system envisioned to increase the bioavailability by improving intestinal permeability through lymphatic uptake, M cell of payer’s patch or paracellular pathway which was proven by confocal microscopy.

Cholesterol-Enhanced Polylactide-Based Stereocomplex Micelle for Effective Delivery of Doxorubicin

Nanoscale micelles as an effective drug delivery system have attracted increasing interest in malignancy therapy. The present study reported the construction of the cholesterol-enhanced doxorubicin (DOX)-loaded poly(D-lactide)-based micelle (CDM/DOX), poly(L-lactide)-based micelle (CLM/DOX), and stereocomplex micelle (CSCM/DOX) from the equimolar enantiomeric 4-armed poly(ethylene glycol)-polylactide copolymers in aqueous condition. Compared with CDM/DOX and CLM/DOX, CSCM/DOX showed the smallest hydrodynamic size of 96 ± 4.8 nm and the slowest DOX release. The DOX-loaded micelles exhibited a weaker DOX fluorescence inside mouse renal carcinoma cells (i.e., RenCa cells) compared to free DOX·HCl, probably because of a slower DOX release. More importantly, all the DOX-loaded micelles, especially CSCM/DOX, exhibited the excellent antiproliferative efficacy that was equal to or even better than free DOX·HCl toward RenCa cells attributed to their successful internalization. Furthermore, all of the DOX-loaded micelles exhibited the satisfactory hemocompatibility compared to free DOX·HCl, indicating the great potential for systemic chemotherapy through intravenous injection.

A poly-l-glutamic acid functionalized nanocomplex for improved oral drug absorption

A PGA-based complex enhanced intestinal absorption due to the improved active epithelial endocytosis through specific interactions with epithelium-bound γ-GT.

Rationally developed core–shell polymeric-lipid hybrid nanoparticles as a delivery vehicle for cromolyn sodium: implications of lipid envelop on in vitro and in vivo behaviour of nanoparticles upon oral administration

In the present study, cromolyn sodium, a highly water soluble molecule was encapsulated into rationally designed, core–shell polymeric-lipid hybrid nanoparticles for enhancing its oral bioavailability, by improving its intestinal permeability.

Synthesis and anticancer activity of (E)-2-benzothiazole hydrazones

Benzothiazole hydrazones have been synthesized and evaluated for their in vitro antiproliferative activity against three human cancer cell lines: HL-60 (leukemia), MDAMB-435 (breast) and HCT-8 (colon). The good cytotoxicity for the three cancer cell lines and theoretical profile of compounds 3o and 3p pointed them as promising lead molecules for anticancer drug design.

Nanoparticles in drug delivery: mechanism of action, formulation and clinical application towards reduction in drug-associated nephrotoxicity

INTRODUCTION

Over the past few decades, nanoparticles (NPs) have gained immeasurable interest in the field of drug delivery. Various NP formulations have been disseminated in drug development in an attempt to increase efficacy, safety and tolerability of incorporated drugs. In this context, NP formulations that increase solubility, control release, and/or affect the in vivo disposition of drugs, were developed to improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of encapsulated drugs.

AREAS COVERED

In this article, important properties related to NP function such as particle size, surface charge and shape are disseminated. Also, the current understanding of how NP characteristics affect particle uptake and targeted delivery is elucidated. Selected NP systems currently used in delivery of drugs in biological systems and their production methods are discussed as well. Emphasis is placed on current NP formulations that are shown to reduce drug-induced adverse renal complications.

EXPERT OPINION

Formulation designs utilizing NP-encapsulated drugs offer alternative pharmacotherapy options with improved safety profiles for current and emerging drugs. NPs have been shown to increase the therapeutic index of several entrapped drugs mostly by decreasing drug localization and side effects on organs. Recent studies on NP-encapsulated chemotherapeutic and antibiotic medications show enhanced therapeutic outcomes by altering drug degradation, increasing systemic circulation and/or enhancing cell specific targeting. They may also reduce the distribution of encapsulated drugs into the kidneys and attenuate drug-associated adverse renal complications. The usefulness of NP formulation in reducing the nephrotoxicity of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs is an under explored territory that deserves more attention.