Development of innovative paclitaxel-loaded small PLGA nanoparticles: Study of their antiproliferative activity and their molecular interactions on prostatic cancer cells

Nanoparticle-mediated cancer cell therapy: basic science to clinical applications

Every sixth person in the world dies due to cancer, making it the second leading severe cause of death after cardiovascular diseases. According to WHO, cancer claimed nearly 10 million deaths in 2020. The most common types of cancers reported have been breast (lung, colon and rectum, prostate cases), skin (non-melanoma) and stomach. In addition to surgery, the most widely used traditional types of anti-cancer treatment are radio- and chemotherapy. However, these do not distinguish between normal and malignant cells. Additional treatment methods have evolved over time for early detection and targeted therapy of cancer. However, each method has its limitations and the associated treatment costs are quite high with adverse effects on the quality of life of patients. Use of individual atoms or a cluster of atoms (nanoparticles) can cause a paradigm shift by virtue of providing point of sight sensing and diagnosis of cancer. Nanoparticles (1-100 nm in size) are 1000 times smaller in size than the human cell and endowed with safer relocation capability to attack mechanically and chemically at a precise location which is one avenue that can be used to destroy cancer cells precisely. This review summarises the extant understanding and the work done in this area to pave the way for physicians to accelerate the use of hybrid mode of treatments by leveraging the use of various nanoparticles.

Environmentally Friendly Strategies for Formulating Vegetable Oil-Based Nanoparticles for Anticancer Medicine

The development of green synthesized polymeric nanoparticles with anticancer studies has been an emerging field in academia and the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. Vegetable oils are potential substitutes for petroleum derivatives, as they present a clean and environmentally friendly alternative and are available in abundance at relatively low prices. Biomass-derived chemicals can be converted into monomers with a unique structure, generating materials with new properties for the synthesis of sustainable monomers and polymers. The production of bio-based polymeric nanoparticles is a promising application of green chemistry for biomedical uses. There is an increasing demand for biocompatible and biodegradable materials for specific applications in the biomedical area, such as cancer therapy. This is encouraging scientists to work on research toward designing polymers with enhanced properties and clean processes, containing oncology active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs). The nanoencapsulation of these APIs in bio-based polymeric nanoparticles can control the release of the substances, increase bioavailability, reduce problems of volatility and degradation, reduce side effects, and increase treatment efficiency. This review discusses the use of green chemistry for bio-based nanoparticle production and its application in anticancer medicine. The use of castor oil for the production of renewable monomers and polymers is proposed as an ideal candidate for such applications, as well as more suitable methods for the production of bio-based nanoparticles and some oncology APIs available for anticancer application.

Evaluation of paclitaxel-loaded polymeric nanoparticles in 3D tumor model: impact of tumor stroma on penetration and efficacy

Since tumor stroma poses as a barrier to achieve efficacy of nanomedicines, it is essential to evaluate nano-chemotherapeutics in stroma-mimicking 3D models that reliably predict their behavior regarding these hurdles limiting efficacy. In this study, we evaluated the effect of paclitaxel-loaded polymeric micelles (PTX-PMCs) and polymeric nanoparticles (PTX-PNPs) in a tumor stroma-mimicking 3D in vitro model. PTX-PMCs (77 nm) based on a amphiphilic block copolymer of mPEG-b-p(HPMAm-Bz) and PTX-PNPs (159 nm) based on poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) were prepared, which had an encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of 81 ± 15% and 45 ± 8%, respectively. 3D homospheroids of mouse 4T1 breast cancer cells and heterospheroids of NIH3T3 fibroblasts and 4T1 (5:1 ratio) were prepared and characterized with high content two-photon microscopy and immunostaining. Data showed an induction of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (α-SMA) in both homo- and heterospheroids, while ECM (collagen) deposition only in heterospheroids. Two-photon imaging revealed that both fluorescently labeled PMCs and PNPs penetrated into the core of homospheroids and only PMCs penetrated into heterospheroids. Furthermore, PTX-PMCs, PTX-PNPs, and free PTX induced cytotoxicity in tumor cells and fibroblasts grown as monolayer, but these effects were substantially reduced in 3D models, in particular in heterospheroids. Gene expression analysis showed that heterospheroids had a significant increase of drug resistance markers (Bcl2, Abgc2) compared to 2D or 3D monocultures. Altogether, this study shows that the efficacy of nanotherapeutics is challenged by stroma-induced poor penetration and development of resistant phenotype. Therefore, this tumor stroma-mimicking 3D model can provide an excellent platform to study penetration and effects of nanotherapeutics before in vivo studies.

Preparation and optimization of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) rod-shaped particles in nano size range for paclitaxel delivery

Nanoparticle shape has been acknowledged as an important design parameter due to its influence on nanoparticle interaction with biological systems. However, there is lacking of simple and scalable preparation technique for drug loaded non-spherical polymeric nanoparticles for a long time, thus hindering the potential applications. Although our previous research has modified the traditional emulsion solvent evaporation technique by adding guest molecules to prepare non-spherical poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) particles, it is difficult to obtain nano-sized rods with minor axis less than 200 nm, which may have great potential in cancer therapy. Herein, in present research, the two-step ESE method was used and optimized to prepare poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanorods for paclitaxel delivery. Firstly, the single-factor experiment was used to screen the influence of multi-factors including type of guest molecules, concentration of guest molecules, emulsification method, surfactant concentration, oil volume, poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) concentration on the size and shape to determine the range of variables; based on the above range, a multi-factor and multi-level orthogonal experiment was designed. The formula is evaluated by the rod fabrication yield and the aspect ratio of major axis to minor axis. The results showed that the yield of nanorods in the optimal formula was 99% and the aspect ratio was 5.35 ± 2.05 with the minor axis of 135.49 ± 72.66 nm, and major axis of 657.77 ± 307.63 nm. In addition, the anti-cancer drug paclitaxel was successfully encapsulated in PLGA nanorods by the same technique. Our results not only enrich the ESE technique for preparing small sized poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanorods, but also envision the potential application of nanorods for targeted cancer therapy with the delivery of paclitaxel.

Role of Nanotechnology in Overcoming the Multidrug Resistance in Cancer Therapy: A Review

Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality around the globe and is likely to become the major cause of global death in the coming years. As per World Health Organization (WHO) report, every year there are over 10 and 9 million new cases and deaths from this disease. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery are the three basic approaches to treating cancer. These approaches are aiming at eradicating all cancer cells with minimum off-target effects on other cell types. Most drugs have serious adverse effects due to the lack of target selectivity. On the other hand, resistance to already available drugs has emerged as a major obstacle in cancer chemotherapy, allowing cancer to proliferate irrespective of the chemotherapeutic agent. Consequently, it leads to multidrug resistance (MDR), a growing concern in the scientific community. To overcome this problem, in recent years, nanotechnology-based drug therapies have been explored and have shown great promise in overcoming resistance, with most nano-based drugs being explored at the clinical level. Through this review, we try to explain various mechanisms involved in multidrug resistance in cancer and the role nanotechnology has played in overcoming or reversing this resistance.

Ultrasonic Film Rehydration Synthesis of Mixed Polylactide Micelles for Enzyme-Resistant Drug Delivery Nanovehicles

A facile technique for the preparation of mixed polylactide micelles from amorphous poly-D,L-lactide-block-polyethyleneglycol and crystalline amino-terminated poly-L-lactide is described. In comparison to the classical routine solvent substitution method, the ultrasonication assisted formation of polymer micelles allows shortening of the preparation time from several days to 15–20 min. The structure and morphology of mixed micelles were analyzed with the assistance of electron microscopy, dynamic and static light scattering and differential scanning calorimetery. The resulting polymer micelles have a hydrodynamic radius of about 150 nm and a narrow size distribution. The average molecular weight of micelles was found to be 2.1 × 10⁷ and the aggregation number was calculated to be 6000. The obtained biocompatible particles were shown to possess low cytotoxicity, high colloid stability and high stability towards enzymatic hydrolysis. The possible application of mixed polylactide micelles as drug delivery vehicles was studied for the antitumor hydrophobic drug paclitaxel. The lethal concentration (LC50) of paclitaxel encapsulated in polylactide micelles was found to be 42 ± 4 µg/mL—a value equal to the LC50 of paclitaxel in the commercial drug Paclitaxel-Teva.

Current Progress in Cancer Treatment Using Nanomaterials

The pathological processes of cancer are complex. Current methods used for chemotherapy have various limitations, such as cytotoxicity, multi-drug resistance, stem-like cells growth, and lack of specificity. Several types of nanomaterials are used for cancer treatment. Nanomaterials 1–100 nm in size have special optical, magnetic, and electrical characteristics. Nanomaterials have been fabricated for cancer treatments to overcome cytotoxicity and low specificity, and improve drug capacity and bioavailability. Despite the increasing number of related studies, few nanodrugs have been approved for clinical use. To improve translation of these materials, studies of targeted drug delivery using nanocarriers are needed. Cytotoxicity, enhanced permeability and retention effects, and the protective role of the protein corona remain to be addressed. This mini-review summarizes new nanomaterials manufactured in studies and in clinical use, analyses current barriers preventing their translation to clinical use, and describes the effective application of nanomaterials in cancer treatment.

Progress in the drug encapsulation of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) and folate-decorated poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) conjugates for selective cancer treatment

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved polymer used in humans in the forms of resorbable sutures, drug carriers, and bone regeneration materials. Recently, PLGA-based conjugates have been extensively investigated for cancer, which is the second leading cause of death globally. This article presents an account of the literature on PLGA-based conjugates, focusing on their chemistries, biological activity, and functions as targeted drug carriers or sustained drug controllers for common cancers (e.g., breast, prostate, and lung cancers). The preparation and drug encapsulation of PLGA nanoparticles and folate-decorated poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (FA-PEG-PLGA) conjugates are discussed, along with several representative examples. Particularly, the reactions used for preparing drug-conjugated PLGA and FA-PEG-PLGA are emphasized, with the associated chemistries involved in the formation of structures and their biocompatibility with internal organs. This review provides a deeper understanding of the constituents and interactions of PLGA-conjugated materials to ensure successful conjugation in PLGA material design and the subsequent biomedical applications.

Recent advances in the targeted delivery of paclitaxel nanomedicine for cancer therapy

Cancer cases have reached an all-time high in the current era.

Selective targeting of the novel CK-10 nanoparticles to the MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

The main objective of this project was to formulate novel decorated amphiphilic PLGA nanoparticles aiming for the selective delivery of the novel peptide (CK-10) to the cancerous/tumor tissue. Novel modified microfluidic techniques were used to formulate the nanoparticles. This technique was modified by using of Nano Assemblr associated with salting out of the organic solvent using K₂HPO₄. This modification is associated with higher peptide loading efficiencies, smaller size and higher uniformity. Size, zeta potential & qualitative determination of the adsorbed targeting ligands were measured by dynamic light scattering and laser anemometry techniques using the zeta sizer. Quantitative estimation of the adsorbed targeting ligands was done by colorimetry and spectrophotometric techniques. Qualitative and quantitative uptakes of the various PLGA nanoparticles were examined by the fluorescence microscope and the flow cytometer while the cytotoxic effect of the nanoparticles was measured by the colorimetric MTT assay. PLGA/poloxamer.FA, PLGA/poloxamer.HA, and PLGA/poloxamer.Tf have breast cancer MDA. MB321 cellular uptakes 83.8, 75.43 & 69.37 % which are higher than those of the PLGA/B cyclodextrin.FA, PLGA/B cyclodextrin.HA and PLGA/B cyclodextrin.Tf 80.87, 74.47 & 64.67 %. Therefore, PLGA/poloxamer.FA and PLGA/poloxamer.HA show higher cytotoxicity than PLGA/ poloxamer.Tf with lower breast cancer MDA-MB-231 cell viabilities 30.74, 39.15 & 49.23 %, respectively. The design of novel decorated amphiphilic CK-10 loaded PLGA nanoparticles designed by the novel modified microfluidic technique succeeds in forming innovative anticancer formulations candidates for therapeutic use in aggressive breast cancers.

Manganese-Doped N-Hydroxyphthalimide-Derived Carbon Dots-Theranostics Applications in Experimental Breast Cancer Models

BACKGROUND

Theranostics, a novel concept in medicine, is based on the use of an agent for simultaneous diagnosis and treatment. Nanomaterials provide promising novel approaches to theranostics. Carbon Dots have been shown to exhibit anti-tumoral properties in various cancer models. The aim of the present study is to develop gadolinium, Fe³⁺, and Mn²⁺-doped N-hydroxyphthalimide-derived Carbon Dots. The resulted doped Carbon Dots should preserve the anti-tumoral properties while gaining magnetic resonance imaging properties.

METHODS

Normal and cancer cell lines have been treated with doped Carbon Dots, and the cell viability has been measured. The doped Carbon Dots that exhibited the most prominent anti-tumoral effect accompanied by the lowest toxicity have been further in vivo tested. Magnetic resonance imaging evaluates both in vitro and in vivo the possibility of using doped Carbon Dots as a contrast agent.

RESULTS

According to the results obtained from both the in vitro and in vivo experimental models used in our study, Mn²⁺-doped Carbon Dots (Mn-CDs-NHF) exhibit anti-tumoral properties, do not significantly impair the cell viability of normal cells, and reduce lung metastasis and the volume of mammary primary tumors while allowing magnetic resonance imaging.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings prove that Mn-CDs-NHF can be used as theranostics agents in pre-clinical models.

Nanomaterials for cancer therapy: current progress and perspectives

Cancer is a disease with complex pathological process. Current chemotherapy faces problems such as lack of specificity, cytotoxicity, induction of multi-drug resistance and stem-like cells growth. Nanomaterials are materials in the nanorange 1–100 nm which possess unique optical, magnetic, and electrical properties. Nanomaterials used in cancer therapy can be classified into several main categories. Targeting cancer cells, tumor microenvironment, and immune system, these nanomaterials have been modified for a wide range of cancer therapies to overcome toxicity and lack of specificity, enhance drug capacity as well as bioavailability. Although the number of studies has been increasing, the number of approved nano-drugs has not increased much over the years. To better improve clinical translation, further research is needed for targeted drug delivery by nano-carriers to reduce toxicity, enhance permeability and retention effects, and minimize the shielding effect of protein corona. This review summarizes novel nanomaterials fabricated in research and clinical use, discusses current limitations and obstacles that hinder the translation from research to clinical use, and provides suggestions for more efficient adoption of nanomaterials in cancer therapy.

Guided bone regeneration by the development of alendronate sodium loaded in-situ gel and membrane formulations

Biocompatible materials applied in guided bone regeneration are needed to prevent leakage caused by the invasion of peripheral epithelium. (2.1) The aim of this study is to develop a thermosensitive in situ gel system containing alendronate sodium loaded PLGA nanoparticles and alendronate sodium loaded membranes for guided bone regeneration. Thermosensitive Pluronic F127 gel system was preferred to prevent soft tissue migration to the defect site and prolong the residence time of the nanoparticles in this region. In situ gel system was combined with membrane formulation to enhance bone regenaration activity. Efficacy of combination system was investigated by implanting in 0.5 × 0.5 cm critical size defect in tibia of New Zealand female rabbits. According to the histopathological results, fibroblast formations were found at defect area after 6 weeks of post implantation. In contrast, treatment with the combination of in-situ gel containing nanoparticles with membrane provided woven bone formation with mature bone after 4 weeks of post implantation. As a results, the combination of in-situ gel formulation containing alendronate sodium-loaded nanoparticles with membrane formulation could be effectively applided for guided bone regeneration.

Pharmacokinetic profile of chitosan modified poly lactic co-glycolic acid biodegradable nanoparticles following oral delivery of gentamicin in rabbits

Gentamicin (GM) is a well know antibiotic and drug of choice for various infections and is available in the form of parenteral and topical formulations. Gentamicin has no oral dosage form due to its enzymatic degradation and poor bioavailability. This study was designed to optimize controlled release oral dosage form of GM using poly lactic co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) which were surface modified with chitosan. Nanoparticles were characterized for size, potential, scanning electron microscopy and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Drug concentration in plasma samples was determined by microbiological assay against Bacillus subtilis (ATCC 9372). In vitro release pattern was studied and the best formulation was administered to healthy rabbits for pharmacokinetic studies. Various pharmacokinetic parameters determined for oral formulation were area under the curve (AUC) 43.2 ± 2.16 h.mg/L, volume of distribution (Vd) 1.54 ± 0.25 L, half-life phase-1 (t_1/2α) 0.59 ± 0.12 h, mean residence time (MRT) 11.22 ± 0.42 h, time to reach maximum concentration (Tmax) 2.56 ± 0.09 h and maximum concentration (Cmax) was 3.49 ± 0.10 mg/L. It is concluded that chitosan modified GM loaded PLGA NPs has potential for oral absorption and can be used for achieving therapeutic benefits.

Protein delivery by porous cationic maltodextrin-based nanoparticles into nasal mucosal cells: Comparison with cationic or anionic nanoparticles

Different types of biodegradable nanoparticles (NPs) have been studied as delivery systems for proteins into nasal mucosal cells, especially for vaccine applications. Such a nanocarrier must have the ability to be loaded with proteins and to transport this payload into mucosal cells. However, comparative data on nanoparticles' capacity for protein loading, efficiency of subsequent endocytosis and the quantity of nanocarriers used are either lacking or contradictory, making comparisons and the choice of a best candidate difficult. Here we compared 5 types of nanoparticles with different surface charge (anionic or cationic) and various inner compositions as potential vectors: the NPL (cationic maltodextrin NP with an anionic lipid core), cationic and anionic PLGA (Poly Lactic co-Glycolic Acid) NP, and cationic and anionic liposomes. We first quantified the protein association efficiency and NPL associated the largest amount of ovalbumin, used as a model protein. In vitro, the delivery of fluorescently-labeled ovalbumin into mucosal cells (airway epithelial cells, dendritic cells and macrophages) was assessed by flow cytometry and revealed that the NPL delivered protein to the greatest extent in all 3 different cell lines. Taken together, these data underlined the potential of the porous and cationic maltodextrin-based NPL as efficient protein delivery systems to mucosal cells.

Electrosprayed polymeric nanobeads and nanofibers of modafinil: preparation, characterization, and drug release studies

Introduction: Modafinil (MDF) is used orally for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy. It holds low solubility and high permeability; therefore, improving its dissolution properties by preparing nanoformulations can be a promising approach to enhance its oral absorption. Our aims were to prepare and characterize MDF-Eudragit® RS100 (MDF-ERS) nanoparticles by electrospray technique.

Methods: Electrosprayed nanoparticles were fabricated by varying MDF to ERS ratios and concentrations. The formulations were characterized by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Release studies were performed on nanoparticles, physical mixtures, and raw MDF. The release data were fitted to different models to understand the mechanism of the drug release.

Results: Electrospraying of MDF and ERS solution resulted in the preparation of nonobeads or nanofibers, and the particulate characteristics of the obtained products were largely controlled by the polymer amount in the solution. PXRD and thermal analyses showed that MDF was an amorphous phase in the structures of nanoparticles. Using FTIR, no interaction was observed between MDF and ERS in nanoparticles. Nanoparticles showed biphasic release profiles and the order of dissolution rates was: nanofibers>MDF>nanobeads. The well-fitted model was Weibull model, indicating a Fickian diffusion as the main mechanism of release.

Conclusion: The results suggest that by optimization of variables such as solution concentration of MDF-ERS nanofibers and nanobeads with higher dissolution rates can be made by electrospray. Electrospray deposition as a simple, continuous, and surfactant free method is an excellent choice for preparation of drug loaded polymeric nanoparticles.

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) modulates liver ischemia reperfusion through the expression adhesion molecules

BACKGROUND & AIMS

In liver transplantation, organ shortage leads to the use of marginal grafts that are more susceptible to ischemia-reperfusion (IR) injury. We identified nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) as an important modulator of polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN)-induced liver injury, which occurs in IR. Herein, we aimed to elucidate the role of NOD1 in IR injury, particularly focusing on its effects on the endothelium and hepatocytes.

METHOD

Nod1 WT and KO mice were treated with NOD1 agonists and subjected to liver IR. Expression of adhesion molecules was analyzed in total liver, isolated hepatocytes and endothelial cells. Interactions between PMNs and hepatocytes were studied in an ex vivo co-culture model using electron microscopy and lactate dehydrogenase levels. We generated NOD1 antagonist-loaded nanoparticles (np ALINO).

RESULTS

NOD1 agonist treatment increased liver injury, PMN tissue infiltration and upregulated ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 expression 20 hours after reperfusion. NOD1 agonist treatment without IR increased expression of adhesion molecules (ICAM-1, VCAM-1) in total liver and more particularly in WT hepatocytes, but not in Nod1 KO hepatocytes. This induction is dependent of p38 and ERK signaling pathways. Compared to untreated hepatocytes, a NOD1 agonist markedly increased hepatocyte lysis in co-culture with PMNs as shown by the increase of lactate dehydrogenase in supernatants. Interaction between hepatocytes and PMNs was confirmed by electron microscopy. In a mouse model of liver IR, treatment with np ALINO significantly reduced the area of necrosis, aminotransferase levels and ICAM-1 expression.

CONCLUSION

NOD1 regulates liver IR injury through induction of adhesion molecules and modulation of hepatocyte-PMN interactions. NOD1 antagonist-loaded nanoparticles reduced liver IR injury and provide a potential approach to prevent IR, especially in the context of liver transplantation.

LAY SUMMARY

Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain 1 (NOD1) is as an important modulator of polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN)-induced liver injury, which occurs in ischemia-reperfusion. Here, we show that the NOD1 pathway targets liver adhesion molecule expression on the endothelium and on hepatocytes through p38 and ERK signaling pathways. The early increase of adhesion molecule expression after reperfusion emphasizes the importance of adhesion molecules in liver injury. In this study we generated nanoparticles loaded with NOD1 antagonist. These nanoparticles reduced liver necrosis by reducing PMN liver infiltration and adhesion molecule expression.

Impact of CEA-targeting Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common causes of cancer-related death in the world, mainly owing to distant metastasis events. Developing targeted strategies to treat and follow individuals in more developed stages is needed. The carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) is a cell surface-overexpressed glycoprotein in most CRC patients, and the evaluation of its serum levels is recommended in the clinic. These reasons motivated the production of CEA-targeted nanotechnologies for monitorization of CRC progression, but only a few centers have reported their use for drug delivery. The cellular internalization of CEA-linked nanosystems occurs by the natural recycling of the CEA itself, enabling longer retention and sustained release of the cargo. The functionalization of nanoparticles with lower affinity ligands for CEA is possibly the best choice to avoid their binding to the soluble CEA. Here, we also highlight the use of nanoparticles made of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer, a well known material, owing to its biocompatibility and low toxicity. This work offers support to the contribution of antibody fragment-functionalized nanoparticles as promising high affinity molecules to decorate nanosystems. The linkers and conjugation chemistries chosen for ligand-nanoparticle coupling will be addressed herein as an elements essential to the modulation of nanosystem features. This review, to our knowledge, is the first that focuses on CEA-targeted nanotechnologies to serve colorectal cancer therapy and monitorization.

Cabazitaxel and silibinin co-encapsulated cationic liposomes for CD44 targeted delivery: A new insight into nanomedicine based combinational chemotherapy for prostate cancer

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are the promising targets for cancer chemotherapy that cannot be eliminated by conventional chemotherapy. In this study cationic liposomes of cabazitaxel (CBX) and silibinin (SIL) were prepared with an aim to kill cancer cells and CSCs for prostate cancer. CBX act as cancer cell inhibitor and SIL as CSC inhibitor. Hyaluronic acid (HA), an endogenous anionic polysaccharide was coated on cationic liposomes for targeting CD44 receptors over expressed on CSCs. Liposomes were prepared by ethanol injection method with particle size below 100 nm and entrapment efficiency of more than 90% at 10% w/w drug loading. Liposomes were characterized by dynamic light scattering, transmission electron microscopy, ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy. Liposomes were evaluated for their anticancer action in androgen independent human prostate cancer cell lines (PC-3 and DU-145). HA coated liposomes showed potential cytotoxicity over other groups with low IC₅₀, significantly inhibited cell migration and induced apoptosis. Synergistic cytotoxic effect was also observed with HA coated liposomes that resulted in colony formation inhibition and G2/M phase arrest. Proficient cytotoxicity against CD44⁺ cells (14.87 ± 0.41% in PC-3 and 33.95 ± 0.68% in DU-145 cells) indicated the efficiency of HA coated liposomes towards CSC targeting. Hence, the outcome of this combinational therapy with CD44 targeting indicates the suitability of HA coated CBX and SIL co-loaded liposomes as a potential approach for eradicating prostate cancer and herein might provide a insight for future studies.

Residence time and uptake of porous and cationic maltodextrin-based nanoparticles in the nasal mucosa: Comparison with anionic and cationic nanoparticles

Different types of biodegradable nanoparticles (NP) have been studied as nasal mucosa cell delivery systems. These nanoparticles need to strongly interact with mucosa cells to deliver their payload. However, only a few simultaneous comparisons have been made and it is therefore difficult to determine the best candidate. Here we compared 5 types of nanoparticles with different surface charge (anionic or cationic) and various inner compositions as potential vectors: cationic and anionic liposomes, cationic and anionic PLGA (Poly Lactic co-Glycolic Acid) NP and porous and cationic maltodextrin NP (cationic surface with an anionic lipid core: NPL). We first quantified their nasal residence time after nasal administration in mice using in vivo live imaging and NPL showed the longest residence time. In vitro endocytosis on mucosal cells (airway epithelial cells, macrophages and dendritic cells) using labeled nanoparticles were performed by flow cytometry and confocal microscopy. Among the 5 nanoparticles, NPL were taken up to the greatest extent by the 3 different cell lines and the endocytosis mechanisms were characterized. Taken together, we observed that the nanoparticles' cationic surface charge is insufficient to improve mucosal residence time and cellular uptake and that the NPL are the best candidates to interact with airway mucosal cells.

Carcinoembryonic antigen-targeted nanoparticles potentiate the delivery of anticancer drugs to colorectal cancer cells

Bioengineered functionalized nanoparticles have extensively been proposed in recent years to efficiently deliver anti-cancer drugs to the tumour site, by targeting the cancer cells and improving the therapeutic efficiency of active molecules. In this work, polymeric poly (lactic-co- glycolic)-polyethyleneglycol (PLGA-PEG) nanoparticles were produced by nanoprecipitation and loaded with paclitaxel, following surface-functionalized with a monoclonal antibody targeting the carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) of intestinal epithelial cells. Physicochemical properties, cytotoxicity and targeting ability of the nanoparticles against two intestine epithelial carcinoma cell lines, CEA-expressing Caco-2 clone and non-CEA-expressing SW480, were assessed. Results showed successful production of nanoparticles around 200 nm, and close to charge neutrality, encapsulating up to 99% of paclitaxel. Functionalized nanoparticles were further constructed, demonstrating to be non-cytotoxic against intestinal cells. The targeting ability of functionalized nanoparticles to Caco-2 CEA expressing cells was confirmed by flow cytometry, in opposite to SW480 cells. Overall, the surface-modified PLGA-PEG nanoparticles with the CEA-targeting antibody were successfully developed as nanocarriers for paclitaxel and interacted with CEA expressing cells. This specific interaction provide these particles ability to be used as targeted systems for colorectal cancer therapeutics.

Characteristics, Properties and Analytical Methods of Paclitaxel: A Review

Paclitaxel is a diterpenoid pseudoalkaloid, isolated from Taxus brevifolia, and is largely used as an antitumoral drug. The formulation of paclitaxel known as Taxol® employs a mixture of Cremophor EL and dehydrated ethanol, due the low drug water solubility. However, Taxol® causes some unwanted side effects due to the presence of Cremophor EL and ethanol in the formulation. Based on this, there is a need for the development of drug delivery systems to enhance the solubility, permeability and stability of paclitaxel and to promote a controlled and targeted delivery for better therapeutic effect and reduced side effects. In addition, the drug has been qualitatively and quantitatively analyzed in different delivery systems. In this context, several approaches were reported focusing on the optimization of analytical methods and development of new ones, considering the need of a fast, simple, with enough sensibility and selectivity assay, which can be a problem in some analysis. This review presents a summary of methods used in quantification of paclitaxel in different matrices, such as plasma, urine, plant extract, cells and delivery systems.

Applications of Nanoparticles Probes for Prostate Cancer Imaging and Therapy

Prostate cancer (PCa) is the most common type of cancer in men with high morbidity and mortality. However, the current treatment with drugs often leads to chemotherapy resistance. It is known that the multi-disciplines research on molecular imaging is very helpful for early diagnosing, staging, restaging and precise treatment of PCa. In the past decades, the tumor-specific targeted drugs were developed for the clinic to treat prostate cancer. Among them, the emerging nanotechnology has brought about many exciting novel diagnosis and treatments systems for PCa. Nanotechnology can greatly enhance the treatment activity of PCa and provide novel theranostics platform by utilizing the unique physical/chemical properties, targeting strategy, or by loading with imaging/therapeutic agents. Herein, this chapter focuses on state-of-art advances in imaging and diagnosing PCa with nanomaterials and highlights the approaches used for functionalization of the targeted biomolecules, and in the treatment for various aspects of PCa with multifunctional nanoparticles, nanoplatforms and nanodelivery system.

Vectorization by nanoparticles decreases the overall toxicity of airborne pollutants

Atmospheric pollution is mainly composed of volatile pollutants and particulate matter that strongly interact. However, their specific roles in the induction of cellular toxicity, in particular the impact of the vectorization of atmospheric pollutants by ultrafine particles, remains to be fully elucidated. For this purpose, non-toxic poly-lactic co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles were synthesized and three pollutants (benzo(a)pyrene, naphthalene and di-ethyl-hexyl-phthalate) were adsorbed on the surface of the nanoparticles in order to evaluate the toxicity (cytotoxicity, genotoxicity and ROS induction) of these complexes to a human airway epithelial cell line. The adsorption of the pollutants onto the nanoparticles was confirmed by HPLC analysis. Interestingly, the cytotoxicity assays (MTT, LDH and CellTox Green) clearly demonstrated that the vectorization by nanoparticles decreases the toxicity of the adsorbed pollutants. Genotoxicity was assessed by the micronucleus test and the comet assay and showed no increase in primary DNA damage or in chromosomal aberrations of nanoparticle vectorized pollutants. Neither cytotoxicity nor genotoxicity was correlated with ROS induction. To conclude, our results indicate that the vectorization of pollutants by nanoparticles does not potentiate the toxicity of the pollutants studied and that, on the contrary, adsorption onto nanoparticles could protect cells against pollutants’ toxicity.

siRNA-loaded biodegradable nanocarriers for therapeutic MAPK1 silencing against cisplatin-induced ototoxicity

Ototoxicity represents a major adverse side-effect of cis-diamminedichloroplatinum-II (cisplatin, CDDP). The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway is thought to play a central role in potentiating the apoptotic effect of CDDP within the cochlea. We hypothesized that prophylactic inhibition of MAPK signaling, using small interfering RNA (siRNA), might confer a protective effect against CDDP-induced apoptosis within the auditory sensory epithelia. To enhance the therapeutic utility of this approach, we synthesized biocompatible siMAPK1-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) and performed physicochemical characterizations for size, morphology, drug loading and release kinetics, using dynamic light scattering, electron microscopy and spectrophotometric analyses, respectively. Our findings show 183.88±6.26 nm-sized spherical siMAPK1-loaded NPs with -27.12±6.65mV zeta potential and 112.78±0.24pmol/mg of siMAPK1 loading that exhibit a sustained release profile for prolonged therapeutic efficacy. Synthesized NPs were validated for biocompatibility and prophylactically protected against CDDP-induced cytotoxicity in HEI-OC1 cells and hair cell loss in murine organotypic cochlear explants. Our study confirms a pivotal role for MAPK1 signaling as a potentiating factor for CDDP-induced apoptosis and cochlear hair cell loss, and highlights siMAPK1 NP treatment as a therapeutic strategy for limiting the ototoxic side-effects associated with systemic CDDP administration.

Simple and tunable surface coatings via polydopamine for modulating pharmacokinetics, cell uptake and biodistribution of polymeric nanoparticles

A strategy that can modulate biological response such as pharmacokinetics, cell uptake and biodistribution of NPs simply by tunable coatings was established.

Development of docetaxel nanocrystals surface modified with transferrin for tumor targeting

The purpose of this study was to develop the surface modification of docetaxel nanocrystals (DTX-NCs) with apo-Transferrin human (Tf) for improving the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of DTX. DTX-NCs were prepared by a nanoprecipitation method, and the surface modified with Tf by an adsorption method (Tf-DTX-NCs). The morphology and particle size of DTX-NCs and Tf-DTX-NCs were characterized using a field emission scanning electron microscope and zetasizer. An in vitro drug release study was performed in phosphate-buffered saline containing 0.5% (w/v) Tween 80 for 24 hours. Cellular uptake was studied at 0.5, 1, and 2 hours. A cytotoxicity study was performed using the A549 (human lung cancer) cell line after 24-, 48-, and 72-hour treatments. The mean sizes were 295±97 and 398±102 nm for DTX-NCs and Tf-DTX-NCs, respectively. Tf-DTX-NCs and DTX-NCs exhibited rapid drug release, whereas DTX (pure) was slowly released. Tf-DTX-NCs showed higher cellular uptake than DTX-NCs in confocal microscopic and quantitative studies. Moreover, at DTX concentration of 100 µg/mL, Tf-DTX-NCs (82.6%±0.8%) showed higher cytotoxicity than DTX-NCs (77.4%±4.1%) and DTX (pure; 20.1%±4.6%) for 72-hour treatment. In conclusion, Tf-DTX-NCs significantly improved the cellular uptake and cytotoxicity of DTX in the A549 cell line.

Co-loaded paclitaxel/rapamycin liposomes: Development, characterization and in vitro and in vivo evaluation for breast cancer therapy

Paclitaxel and rapamycin have been reported to act synergistically to treat breast cancer. Albeit paclitaxel is available for breast cancer treatment, the most commonly used formulation in the clinic presents side effects, limiting its use. Furthermore, both drugs present pharmacokinetics drawbacks limiting their in vivo efficacy and clinic combination. As an alternative, drug delivery systems, particularly liposomes, emerge as an option for drug combination, able to simultaneously deliver co-loaded drugs with improved therapeutic index. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to develop and characterize a co-loaded paclitaxel and rapamycin liposome and evaluate it for breast cancer efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. Results showed that a SPC/Chol/DSPE-PEG (2000) liposome was able to co-encapsulate paclitaxel and rapamycin with suitable encapsulation efficiency values, nanometric particle size, low polydispersity and neutral zeta potential. Taken together, FTIR and thermal analysis evidenced drug conversion to the more bioavailable molecular and amorphous forms, respectively, for paclitaxel and rapamycin. The pegylated liposome exhibited excellent colloidal stability and was able to retain drugs encapsulated, which were released in a slow and sustained fashion. Liposomes were more cytotoxic to 4T1 breast cancer cell line than the free drugs and drugs acted synergistically, particularly when co-loaded. Finally, in vivo therapeutic evaluation carried out in 4T1-tumor-bearing mice confirmed the in vitro results. The co-loaded paclitaxel/rapamycin pegylated liposome better controlled tumor growth compared to the solution. Therefore, we expect that the formulation developed herein might be a contribution for future studies focusing on the clinical combination of paclitaxel and rapamycin.

PLGA nanoparticles augmented the anticancer potential of pentacyclic triterpenediol in vivo in mice

A novel pentacyclic triterpenediol (TPD), an anticancer lead fromBoswellia serrata, was encapsulated into PLGA nanoparticles, leading to enhancement in anticancer potential in EAT bearing mice model.

Influence of the surface charge of PLGA nanoparticles on their in vitro genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, ROS production and endocytosis

With the ongoing commercialization of nanotechnology products, human exposure to nanoparticles (NPs) is set to increase dramatically and an evaluation of their potential adverse effects is essential. Surface charge, among other physico-chemicals parameters, is a key criterion that should be considered when using a definition for nanomaterials in a regulatory context. It has recently been recognized as an important factor in determining the toxicity of NPs; however, a complete understanding of the mechanisms involved is still lacking. In this context, the aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of the surface charge modification of NPs on in vitro toxicity assays. Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles bearing different surface charges, positive(+), neutral(n) or negative(-), were synthesized. In vitro genotoxicity assays (micronucleus and comet assays) coupled with an assessment of cytotoxicity, were performed in different cell lines (L5178Y mouse lymphoma cells, TK6 human B-lymphoblastoid cells and 16HBE14o- human bronchial epithelial cells). Reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and endocytosis studies were also performed. Our results showed that PLGA(+) NPs were cytotoxic. They are endocytosed by the clathrin pathway and induced ROS in the three cell lines. They led to chromosomal aberrations without primary DNA damage in 16HBE14o- cells, suggesting that aneuploidy may be considered as an important biomarker when assessing the genotoxic potential of NPs. Moreover, 16HBE14o- cells seem to be more suitable for the in vitro screening of inhaled NPs than the regulatory L5178Y and TK6 cells.

Nanoparticles of alkylglyceryl-dextran-graft-poly(lactic acid) for drug delivery to the brain: Preparation and in vitro investigation

Poly(lactic acid), which has an inherent tendency to form colloidal systems of low polydispersity, and alkylglyceryl-modified dextran - a material designed to combine the non-immunogenic and stabilising properties of dextran with the demonstrated permeation enhancing ability of alkylglycerols - have been combined for the development of nanoparticulate, blood-brain barrier-permeating, non-viral vectors. To this end, dextran, that had been functionalised via treatment with epoxide precursors of alkylglycerol, was covalently linked to poly(lactic acid) using a carbodiimide cross-linker to form alkylglyceryl-modified dextran-graft-poly(lactic acid). Solvent displacement and electrospray methods allowed the formulation of these materials into nanoparticles having a unimodal size distribution profile of about 100-200nm and good stability at physiologically relevant pH (7.4). The nanoparticles were characterised in terms of hydrodynamic size (by Dynamic Light Scattering and Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis), morphology (by Scanning Electron Microscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy) and zeta potential, and their toxicity was evaluated using MTT and PrestoBlue assays. Cellular uptake was evidenced by confocal microscopy employing nanoparticles that had been loaded with the easy-to-detect Rhodamine B fluorescent marker. Transwell-model experiments employing mouse (bEnd3) and human (hCMEC/D3) brain endothelial cells revealed enhanced permeation (statistically significant for hCMEC/D3) of the fluorescent markers in the presence of the nanoparticles. Results of studies using Electric Cell Substrate Impedance Sensing suggested a transient decrease of the barrier function in an in vitro blood-brain barrier model following incubation with these nanoformulations. An in ovo study using 3-day chicken embryos indicated the absence of whole-organism acute toxicity effects. The collective in vitro data suggest that these alkylglyceryl-modified dextran-graft-poly(lactic acid) nanoparticles are promising candidates for in vivo evaluations that would test their capability to transport therapeutic actives to the brain.

Evolution of availability of curcumin inside poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid nanoparticles: impact on antioxidant and antinitrosant properties

Purpose

Curcumin exhibits antioxidant properties potentially beneficial for human health; however, its use in clinical applications is limited by its poor solubility and relative instability. Nanoparticles exhibit interesting features for the efficient distribution and delivery of curcumin into cells, and could also increase curcumin stability in biological systems. There is a paucity of information regarding the evolution of the antioxidant properties of nanoparticle-encapsulated curcumin.

Method

We described a simple method of curcumin encapsulation in poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles without the use of detergent. We assessed, in epithelial cells and in an acellular model, the evolution of direct antioxidant and antinitrosant properties of free versus PLGA-encapsulated curcumin after storage under different conditions (light vs darkness, 4°C vs 25°C vs 37°C).

Results

In epithelial cells, endocytosis and efflux pump inhibitors showed that the increased antioxidant activity of PLGA-encapsulated curcumin relied on bypassing the efflux pump system. Acellular assays showed that the antioxidant effect of curcumin was greater when loaded in PLGA nanoparticles. Furthermore, we observed that light decreased, though heat restored, antioxidant activity of PLGA-encapsulated curcumin, probably by modulating the accessibility of curcumin to reactive oxygen species, an observation supported by results from quenching experiments. Moreover, we demonstrated a direct antinitrosant activity of curcumin, enhanced by PLGA encapsulation, which was increased by light exposure.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the antioxidant and antinitrosant activities of encapsulated curcumin are light sensitive and that nanoparticle modifications over time and with temperature may facilitate curcumin contact with reactive oxygen species. These results highlight the importance of understanding effects of nanoparticle maturation on an encapsulated drug’s activity.

Injectable nanoparticle-loaded hydrogel system for local delivery of sodium alendronate

Systemic administration of bisphosphonates, e.g. sodium alendronate (Aln) is characterized by extremely low bioavailability and high toxicity. To omit aforementioned drawbacks an injectable system for the intra-bone delivery of Aln based on Aln-loaded nanoparticles (NPs-Aln) suspended in a hydrogel matrix (gellan gum, GG) was developed. Aln was encapsulated in poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA 85:15) by solid-oil-water emulsification. Drug release tests showed that within 25 days all the encapsulated drug was released from NPs-Aln and the release rate was highest at the beginning and decreased with time. In contrast, by suspending NPs-Aln in a GG matrix, the release rate was significantly lower and more constant in time. The GG-NPs-Aln system was engineered to be easily injectable and was able to reassemble its structure after extrusion as shown by rheological measurements. Invitro studies showed that the GG-NPs-Aln was cytocompatible with MG-63 osteoblast-like cells and it inhibited RANKL-mediated osteoclastic differentiation of RAW 264.7 cells. The injectability, the sustained local delivery of small doses of Aln and the biological activity render the GG-NPs-Aln system promising for the local treatment of osteoporosis and other bone tissue disorders.