Robust and versatile pectin-based drug delivery systems

Controlled Drug Release from Nanoengineered Polysaccharides

Polysaccharides are naturally occurring complex molecules with exceptional physicochemical properties and bioactivities. They originate from plant, animal, and microbial-based resources and processes and can be chemically modified. The biocompatibility and biodegradability of polysaccharides enable their increased use in nanoscale synthesis and engineering for drug encapsulation and release. This review focuses on sustained drug release studies from nanoscale polysaccharides in the fields of nanotechnology and biomedical sciences. Particular emphasis is placed on drug release kinetics and relevant mathematical models. An effective release model can be used to envision the behavior of specific nanoscale polysaccharide matrices and reduce impending experimental trial and error, saving time and resources. A robust model can also assist in translating from in vitro to in vivo experiments. The main aim of this review is to demonstrate that any study that establishes sustained release from nanoscale polysaccharide matrices should be accompanied by a detailed analysis of drug release kinetics by modeling since sustained release from polysaccharides not only involves diffusion and degradation but also surface erosion, complicated swelling dynamics, crosslinking, and drug-polymer interactions. As such, in the first part, we discuss the classification and role of polysaccharides in various applications and later elaborate on the specific pharmaceutical processes of polysaccharides in ionic gelling, stabilization, cross-linking, grafting, and encapsulation of drugs. We also document several drug release models applied to nanoscale hydrogels, nanofibers, and nanoparticles of polysaccharides and conclude that, at times, more than one model can accurately describe the sustained release profiles, indicating the existence of release mechanisms running in parallel. Finally, we conclude with the future opportunities and advanced applications of nanoengineered polysaccharides and their theranostic aptitudes for future clinical applications.

Green approaches for extraction, chemical modification and processing of marine polysaccharides for biomedical applications

Over the past few decades, natural-origin polysaccharides have received increasing attention across different fields of application, including biomedicine and biotechnology, because of their specific physicochemical and biological properties that have afforded the fabrication of a plethora of multifunctional devices for healthcare applications. More recently, marine raw materials from fisheries and aquaculture have emerged as a highly sustainable approach to convert marine biomass into added-value polysaccharides for human benefit. Nowadays, significant efforts have been made to combine such circular bio-based approach with cost-effective and environmentally-friendly technologies that enable the isolation of marine-origin polysaccharides up to the final construction of a biomedical device, thus developing an entirely sustainable pipeline. In this regard, the present review intends to provide an up-to-date outlook on the current green extraction methodologies of marine-origin polysaccharides and their molecular engineering toolbox for designing a multitude of biomaterial platforms for healthcare. Furthermore, we discuss how to foster circular bio-based approaches to pursue the further development of added-value biomedical devices, while preserving the marine ecosystem.

Dual crosslinking of folic acid-modified pectin nanoparticles for enhanced oral insulin delivery

Pectin-based drug delivery systems hold great potential for oral insulin delivery, since they possess excellent gelling property, good mucoadhesion and high stability in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. However, lack of enterocyte targeting ability and premature drug release in the upper GI tract of the susceptible ionic-crosslinked pectin matrices are two major problems to be solved. To address these issues, we developed folic acid (FA)-modified pectin nanoparticles (INS/DFAN) as insulin delivery vehicles by a dual-crosslinking method using calcium ions and adipic dihydrazide (ADH) as crosslinkers. In vitro studies indicated insulin release behaviors of INS/DFAN depended on COOH/ADH molar ratio in the dual-crosslinking process. INS/DFAN effectively prevented premature insulin release in simulated GI fluids compared to ionic-crosslinked nanoparticles (INS/FAN). At an optimized COOH/ADH molar ratio, INS/DFAN with FA graft ratio of 18.2% exhibited a relatively small particle size, high encapsulation efficiency and excellent stability. Cellular uptake of INS/DFAN was FA graft ratio dependent when it was at/below 18.2%. Uptake mechanism and intestinal distribution studies demonstrated the enhanced insulin transepithelial transport by INS/DFAN via FA carrier-mediated transport pathway. In vivo studies revealed that orally-administered INS/DFAN produced a significant reduction in blood glucose levels and further improved insulin bioavailability in type I diabetic rats compared to INS/FAN. Taken together, the combination of dual crosslinking and FA modification is an effective strategy to develop pectin nano-vehicles for enhanced oral insulin delivery.

Taurine loaded chitosan-pectin nanoparticle shows curative effect against acetic acid-induced colitis in rats

Owing to the poor outcomes and adverse side effects of existing ulcerative colitis drugs, the study aimed to develop an alternative nano-based treatment approach. The study was designed to characterize the in vitro and in vivo properties of taurine, taurine-loaded chitosan pectin nanoparticles (Tau-CS-PT-NPs) and chitosan pectin nanoparticles (CS-PT-NPs) in the therapy of acetic acid (AA)-induced colitis in rats. CS-PT-NPs and Tau-CS-PT-NPs were prepared by ionic gelation method then in vitro characterized, including transmission electron microscopy (TEM), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, encapsulation efficiency (EE), and drug release profile. Following colitis induction, rats were orally administrated with free taurine, Tau-CS-PT-NPs, and CS-PT-NPs once per day for six days. The sizes of Tau-CS-PT-NPs and CS-PT-NPs were 74.17 ± 2.88 nm and 42.22 ± 2.41 nm, respectively. EE was about 69.09 ± 1.58%; furthermore, 60% of taurine was released in 4 h in simulated colon content. AA-induced colitis in untreated rats led to necrosis of colon tissues and a significant increase in interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha (TNF-α), myeloperoxidase (MPO), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels associated with a remarkable reduction in glutathione (GSH) level in colon tissue in comparison to control group. Treatment with taurine, Tau-CS-PT-NPs, and CS-PT-NPs partly reversed these effects. The present study demonstrated that the administration of free taurine, CS-PT-NPs, and Tau-CS-PT-NPs exerted beneficial effects in acetic acid-induced colitis by their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. The best therapeutic effect was observed in animals treated with taurine-loaded chitosan pectin nanoparticles.

Development of nanoparticles coated with cassava bagasse pectin (Manihot esculenta Crantz) containing β-carotene for mucoadhesive applications

Pectin (PC) extracted from a solid residue from cassava roots (Manihot esculenta Crantz) was used to coat nanoparticles (NP) containing β-carotene (BC) aiming at the gastrointestinal administration of this lipophilic nutraceutical. The NP were prepared by spontaneous emulsification method using food grade components. Pectin-coated NP have been successfully prepared as confirmed by the increased particle size and negative surface charges due to the pectin's anionic nature. NP showed spherical shape and monodisperse distribution, with a mean size of 21.3 nm (polydispersity index (PDI) 0.29) for BC PC T80-NP (nanoparticle with β-carotene, pectin and Tween 80) and 261.4 nm (PDI 0.1) for BC PC T20-NP (nanoparticle with β-carotene, pectin and Tween 20). BC was encapsulated at amounts of 530 and 324 µg/ml for BC PC T80-NP and BC PC T20-NP, respectively, with high encapsulation efficiency (> 95%), increasing its antioxidant capacity in vitro, besides no cytotoxic effect. However, only BC PC T20-NP was stable over a 90 days storage period (4°C) and revealed a strong interaction between pectin and mucin. These results suggest that pectin-coated BC PC T20-NP is a promising strategy to improve the bioavailability and permeation of BC for administration through mucosal surfaces.

Natural Film Based on Pectin and Allantoin for Wound Healing: Obtaining, Characterization, and Rat Model

Introduction

In our days, several approaches reported the use of natural compounds in medical applications. Among them, pectin and allantoin are nontoxic, biocompatible, and biodegradable; however, its use for possible wound healing therapeutics is still limited. Pectin and allantoin have been applied in pharmaceutical industry and beauty cosmetic and could be also applied as scaffolds for tissue regeneration, wound healing, and so on. The aim of this study was to combine by the first time two natural ingredients to develop a new biomaterial to treat skin injuries in a rat model.

Methods

For the hydrogel development, new synthesis parameters were established for the obtaining of the film such as temperature, mixing velocity and time, and drying temperatures as well. To enrich the film, the allantoin concentrations were set at 90 wt% and 100 wt% of pectin used. By in vivo assay, films were tested in wound healing in female Wistar rats, 190 ± 10 g in weight and 2 months aged.

Results

The obtained films comprise 2 well-differentiated layers, one layer rich in allantoin, which will be the regenerative layer, and one rich in pectin, which will work as an antimicrobial and protective layer to the wound. These were characterized by swelling kinetics, Fourier transform of the infrared spectrum of absorption (FTIR) spectroscopy, and contact angle. The morphology and topography were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). In vivo assay showed remarkable reduce in a time period in a wound healing process when the film was used. The results show that the use of PA (Pectin-Allantoin) hydrogel reduces the total healing time by 25% approximately.

Conclusions

Pectin-Allantoin (PA) film has potential use in medical applications as wound healing material promoting healthy tissue renewal.

Pectin-decorated magnetite nanoparticles as both iron delivery systems and protective matrices for probiotic bacteria

The goal of this work was to investigate biophysical stability of iron-pectin nanoparticles and analyze the feasibility of using them as delivery systems for the probiotic strain Lactobacillus plantarum CIDCA 83114. Iron oxide (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles were synthesized from 0.25M FeCl₂/0.5 M FeCl₃.6H₂O, and coated with citrus pectins. Their physico-chemical properties [FTIR, X-ray diffraction (XRD), ζ-potential, particle size, SEM, TEM] and their effect on bacterial stabilization (viability after freeze-drying/storage, stability when exposed to simulated gastro-intestinal conditions) were assessed. XRD indicated the almost exclusive presence of magnetite crystalline phases. FTIR spectra confirmed the adsorption of pectin on magnetite nanoparticles surface. SEM and TEM images evidenced agglomerated nanoparticles, and a morphological surface change after adsorption of pectin. DLS and ζ-potential results proved the solvation of the ionizable groups in the hydrophilic network which induced chain expansion and agglomeration. Iron from nanoparticles demonstrated to be non-toxic for microorganisms up to 1.00 mg/mL. Simulated saliva and gastric solutions prevented nanoparticles from dissolution. The higher pH of the intestinal conditions (solvated -COO- and Fe-O- groups) facilitated the dispersion and partial dissolution of nanoparticles. Pectins adsorption on magnetite nanoparticles significantly enhanced electrostatic repulsion, which aided the solvation of ionized iron forms. The soluble species diffused out from the aggregates, being detected in the simulated intestinal fluid. Regarding bacterial viability, no decays were observed neither when pectin-decorated nanoparticles were exposed to simulated fluids nor when stored at 4 °C for 60 days. The composites engineered in this work appear as adequate delivery systems for probiotic bacteria, whose target is the gut.

Biological Activity and Pharmacological Application of Pectic Polysaccharides: A Review

Pectin is a polymer with a core of alternating α-1,4-linked d-galacturonic acid and α-1,2-l-rhamnose units, as well as a variety of neutral sugars such as arabinose, galactose, and lesser amounts of other sugars. Currently, native pectins have been compared to modified ones due to the development of natural medicines and health products. In this review, the results of a study of the bioactivity of pectic polysaccharides, including its various pharmacological applications, such as its immunoregulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antibacterial, antioxidant and antitumor activities, have been summarized. The potential of pectins to contribute to the enhancement of drug delivery systems has been observed.