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Hwang ET, Yoon Y, Kim KR, Lee CH, Jeon KC, Min JH, Lee JW, Kim J. Hybrid protein microspheres and their responsive release behaviors and inhibitory effects on melanin synthesis. Biomater Sci 2024; 12:2434-2443. [PMID: 38517309 DOI: 10.1039/d4bm00106k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
In this study, the formation of protein microspheres through lysosomal enzyme-assisted biomineralized crystallization was demonstrated. Spherical micro-sized hybrid CaCO3 constructs were synthesized and characterized using field-emission scanning electron microscopy equipped with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, and particle size analysis. Additionally, parameters such as the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area and single-point total pore volume, and adsorption/desorption analysis were used to investigate the mesoporous properties, which are advantageous for lysosomal enzyme (LE) loading. A LE can be used as an organic template, not only as a morphological controller but also for entrapping LE during the crystallization pathway. The hybrid protein microspheres accommodated 2.3 mg of LE with a 57% encapsulation efficiency and 5.1 wt% loading. The peroxidase activity of the microspheres was calculated and found to be approximately 0.0238 mM-1 min-1. pH-responsive release of the LE from CaCO3 was observed, suggesting potential biomedical and cosmetic applications in acidic environments. The hybrid LE microsphere treatment significantly alleviated melanin production in a dose-dependent manner and further downregulated the mRNA expression of MITF, tyrosinase, TYRP-1, and TYRP-2. These results indicate skin-whitening effects by inhibiting melanin without inducing cytotoxicity. The data provide the first evidence of the potential use of a LE for obtaining hybrid minerals and the effectiveness of biomineralization-based sustainable delivery of enzyme-based vehicles based on organelle-extract-assisted biomineralization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ee Taek Hwang
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Dong-A University, Busan 49315, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yeahwa Yoon
- Department of Cosmetics Engineering, Konkuk University, Seoul 05029, Republic of Korea
| | - Ka Ram Kim
- GeneCellPharm Corporation, Seoul, 05836, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Hee Lee
- Department of Food Biotechnology, Dong-A University, Busan 49315, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyung Chan Jeon
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Ji Ho Min
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Chonbuk National University, Jeonju 54896, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae Won Lee
- Korea Conformity Laboratories, Incheon, 21999, Republic of Korea
| | - Jangyong Kim
- Institute for Integrated Micro and Nano Systems (IMNS), The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3BF, UK
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2
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Double hydrophilic block copolymers self-assemblies in biomedical applications. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2020; 283:102213. [PMID: 32739324 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2020.102213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Double-hydrophilic block copolymers (DHBCs), consisting of at least two different water-soluble blocks, are an alternative to the classical amphiphilic block copolymers and have gained increasing attention in the field of biomedical applications. Although the chemical nature of the two blocks can be diverse, most classical DHBCs consist of a bioeliminable non-ionic block to promote solubilization in water, like poly(ethylene glycol), and a second block that is more generally a pH-responsive block capable of interacting with another ionic polymer or substrate. This second block is generally non-degradable and the presence of side chain functional groups raises the question of its fate and toxicity, which is a limitation in the frame of biomedical applications. In this review, following a first part dedicated to recent examples of non-degradable DHBCs, we focus on the DHBCs that combine a biocompatible and bioeliminable non-ionic block with a degradable functional block including polysaccharides, polypeptides, polyesters and other miscellaneous polymers. Their use to design efficient drug delivery systems for various biomedical applications through stimuli-dependent self-assembly is discussed along with the current challenges and future perspectives for this class of copolymers.
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3
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Abalymov A, Van Poelvoorde L, Atkin V, Skirtach AG, Konrad M, Parakhonskiy B. Alkaline Phosphatase Delivery System Based on Calcium Carbonate Carriers for Acceleration of Ossification. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:2986-2996. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anatolii Abalymov
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ghent, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Department of Nano- and Biomedical Technologies, Saratov State University, 410012 Saratov, Russia
| | | | - Vsevolod Atkin
- Department of Nano- and Biomedical Technologies, Saratov State University, 410012 Saratov, Russia
| | - Andre G. Skirtach
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Ghent, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Manfred Konrad
- Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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4
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Riva R, Shah U, Thomassin JM, Yilmaz Z, Lecat A, Colige A, Jérôme C. Design of Degradable Polyphosphoester Networks with Tailor-Made Stiffness and Hydrophilicity as Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. Biomacromolecules 2019; 21:349-355. [PMID: 31687811 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b01276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the recent decades, biodegradable and biocompatible polyphosphoesters (PPEs) have gained wide attention in the biomedical field as relevant substitutes for conventional aliphatic polyesters. These amorphous materials of low glass transition temperature offer promise for the design of soft scaffolds for tissue engineering. Advantageously, the easy variation of the nature of the lateral pendant groups of PPEs allows the insertion of pendent unsaturations valuable for their further cross-linking. In addition, varying the length of the pendent alkyl chains allows tuning their hydrophilicity. The present work aims at synthesizing PPE networks of well-defined hydrophilicity and mechanical properties. More precisely, we aimed at preparing degradable materials exhibiting identical hydrophilicity but different mechanical properties and vice versa. For that purpose, PPE copolymers were synthesized by ring-opening copolymerization of cyclic phosphate monomers bearing different pendent groups (e.g., methyl, butenyl, and butyl). After UV irradiation, a stable and well-defined cross-linked material is obtained with the mechanical property of the corresponding polymer films controlled by the composition of the starting PPE copolymer. The results demonstrate that cross-linking density could be correlated with the mechanical properties, swelling behavior, and degradation rate of the polymers network. The polymers were compatible to human skin fibroblast cells and did not exhibit significant cytotoxicity up to 0.5 mg mL-1. In addition, degradation products appeared nontoxic to skin fibroblast cells and showed their potential as promising scaffolds for tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Riva
- Centre for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), CESAM Research Unit , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B6a , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Urmil Shah
- Centre for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), CESAM Research Unit , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B6a , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Jean-Michel Thomassin
- Centre for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), CESAM Research Unit , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B6a , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Zeynep Yilmaz
- Centre for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), CESAM Research Unit , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B6a , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Aurore Lecat
- GIGA/Cancer-Connective Tissue Biology , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B23 120 , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Alain Colige
- GIGA/Cancer-Connective Tissue Biology , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B23 120 , 4000 Liège , Belgium
| | - Christine Jérôme
- Centre for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), CESAM Research Unit , University of Liege (ULiège) , Building B6a , 4000 Liège , Belgium
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5
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Dera R, Diliën H, Billen B, Gagliardi M, Rahimi N, Van Den Akker NMS, Molin DGM, Grandfils C, Adriaensens P, Guedens W, Cleij TJ. Phosphodiester Hydrogels for Cell Scaffolding and Drug Release Applications. Macromol Biosci 2019; 19:e1900090. [PMID: 31166090 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201900090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Given the major structural role phosphodiesters play in the organism it is surprising they have not been more widely adopted as a building block in sophisticated biomimetic hydrogels and other biomaterials. The potential benefits are substantial: phosphoester-based materials show excellent compatibility with blood, cells, and a remarkable resistance to protein adsorption that may trigger a foreign-body response. In this work, a novel class of phosphodiester-based ionic hydrogels is presented which are crosslinked via a phosphodiester moiety. The material shows good compatibility with blood, supports the growth and proliferation of tissue and presents opportunities for use as a drug release matrix as shown with fluorescent model compounds. The final gel is produced via base-induced elimination from a phosphotriester precursor, which is made by the free-radical polymerization of a phosphotriester crosslinker. This crosslinker is easily synthesized via multigram one-pot procedures out of common laboratory chemicals. Via the addition of various comonomers the properties of the final gel may be tuned leading to a wide range of novel applications for this exciting class of materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Dera
- IMO, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Gebouw D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Hanne Diliën
- Sensor Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, Chemelot Center Court, Gebouw 200, 6167 RD Geleen, The Netherlands
| | - Brecht Billen
- IMO, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Gebouw D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Mick Gagliardi
- Department of Physiology, CARIM, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Nastaran Rahimi
- Department of Physiology, CARIM, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Nynke M S Van Den Akker
- Department of Physiology, CARIM, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Daniel G M Molin
- Department of Physiology, CARIM, Maastricht University, PO Box 616, 6200, MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Grandfils
- Université de Liège, Allée du 6 Août 11, B-4000, Liège (Sart-Tilman), Belgium
| | - Peter Adriaensens
- IMO, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Gebouw D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Wanda Guedens
- IMO, Hasselt University, Agoralaan Gebouw D, 3590, Diepenbeek, Belgium
| | - Thomas J Cleij
- Sensor Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, Urmonderbaan 22, Chemelot Center Court, Gebouw 200, 6167 RD Geleen, The Netherlands
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6
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Insight into the mechanism and factors on encapsulating basic model protein, lysozyme, into heparin doped CaCO3. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2019; 175:184-194. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.11.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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7
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Becker G, Wurm FR. Functional biodegradable polymers via ring-opening polymerization of monomers without protective groups. Chem Soc Rev 2018; 47:7739-7782. [PMID: 30221267 DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00531a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Biodegradable polymers are of current interest and chemical functionality in such materials is often demanded in advanced biomedical applications. Functional groups often are not tolerated in the polymerization process of ring-opening polymerization (ROP) and therefore protective groups need to be applied. Advantageously, several orthogonally reactive functions are available, which do not demand protection during ROP. We give an insight into available, orthogonally reactive cyclic monomers and the corresponding functional synthetic and biodegradable polymers, obtained from ROP. Functionalities in the monomer are reviewed, which are tolerated by ROP without further protection and allow further post-modification of the corresponding chemically functional polymers after polymerization. Synthetic concepts to these monomers are summarized in detail, preferably using precursor molecules. Post-modification strategies for the reported functionalities are presented and selected applications highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greta Becker
- Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, Ackermannweg 10, 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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8
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Gay S, Lefebvre G, Bonnin M, Nottelet B, Boury F, Gibaud A, Calvignac B. PLA scaffolds production from Thermally Induced Phase Separation: Effect of process parameters and development of an environmentally improved route assisted by supercritical carbon dioxide. J Supercrit Fluids 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.supflu.2018.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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9
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Shi P, Luo S, Voit B, Appelhans D, Zan X. A facile and efficient strategy to encapsulate the model basic protein lysozyme into porous CaCO3. J Mater Chem B 2018; 6:4205-4215. [DOI: 10.1039/c8tb00312b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
A method to load lysozyme, a model of basic protein, with high efficiency and high capacity has been developed by doping heparin into porous CaCO3 particles. Choosing suitable polyelectrolyte pairs during the layer-by-layer capsule fabrication process avoided losing the loaded lysozyme, and fully retained the bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengzhong Shi
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry
- Eye Hospital
- School of Biomedical Engineering
- Wenzhou Medical University
- Wenzhou
| | - Shan Luo
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry
- Eye Hospital
- School of Biomedical Engineering
- Wenzhou Medical University
- Wenzhou
| | - Brigitte Voit
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V
- 01069 Dresden
- Germany
| | - Dietmar Appelhans
- Leibniz-Institut für Polymerforschung Dresden e.V
- 01069 Dresden
- Germany
| | - Xingjie Zan
- School of Ophthalmology and Optometry
- Eye Hospital
- School of Biomedical Engineering
- Wenzhou Medical University
- Wenzhou
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10
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Vikulina AS, Feoktistova NA, Balabushevich NG, Skirtach AG, Volodkin D. The mechanism of catalase loading into porous vaterite CaCO3 crystals by co-synthesis. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cp07836f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism of catalase loading into vaterite CaCO3 crystals through co-synthesis is deciphered showing the crucial role of Ca2+-induced catalase aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. S. Vikulina
- School of Science and Technology
- Nottingham Trent University
- NG11 8NS Nottingham
- UK
| | - N. A. Feoktistova
- Department of Chemistry
- Lomonosov Moscow State University
- 119991 Moscow
- Russia
- Fraunhofer Institute for Cell Therapy and Immunology
| | | | - A. G. Skirtach
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology
- University of Ghent
- 9000 Gent
- Belgium
| | - D. Volodkin
- School of Science and Technology
- Nottingham Trent University
- NG11 8NS Nottingham
- UK
- Department of Chemistry
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11
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Coulibaly FS, Ezoulin MJM, Purohit SS, Ayon NJ, Oyler NA, Youan BBC. Layer-by-Layer Engineered Microbicide Drug Delivery System Targeting HIV-1 gp120: Physicochemical and Biological Properties. Mol Pharm 2017; 14:3512-3527. [PMID: 28830144 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to engineer a model anti-HIV microbicide (tenofovir) drug delivery system targeting HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 (HIV-1 g120) for the prevention of HIV sexual transmission. HIV-1 g120 and mannose responsive particles (MRP) were prepared through the layer-by-layer coating of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) with concanavalin A (Con A) and glycogen. MRP average particle size ranged from 881.7 ± 15.45 nm to 1130 ± 15.72 nm, depending on the number of Con A layers. Tenofovir encapsulation efficiency in CaCO3 was 74.4% with drug loading of 16.3% (w/w). MRP was non-cytotoxic to Lactobacillus crispatus, human vaginal keratinocytes (VK2), and murine macrophage RAW 264.7 cells and did not induce any significant proinflammatory nitric oxide release. Overall, compared to control, no statistically significant increase in proinflammatory cytokine IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, MKC, IL-7, and interferon-γ-inducible protein 10 (IP10) levels was observed. Drug release profiles in the presence of methyl α-d-mannopyranoside and recombinant HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein gp120 followed Hixson-Crowell and Hopfenberg kinetic models, indicative of a surface-eroding system. The one Con A layer containing system was found to be the most sensitive (∼2-fold increase in drug release vs control SFS:VFS) at the lowest HIV gp120 concentration tested (25 μg/mL). Percent mucoadhesion, tested ex vivo on porcine vaginal tissue, ranged from 10% to 21%, depending on the number of Con A layers in the formulation. Collectively, these data suggested that the proposed HIV-1 g120 targeting, using MRP, potentially represent a safe and effective template for vaginal microbicide drug delivery, if future preclinical studies are conclusive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fohona S Coulibaly
- Laboratory of Future Nanomedicines and Theoretical Chronopharmaceutics, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 2464 Charlotte, Kansas City, Missouri 64108, United States
| | - Miezan J M Ezoulin
- Laboratory of Future Nanomedicines and Theoretical Chronopharmaceutics, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 2464 Charlotte, Kansas City, Missouri 64108, United States
| | - Sudhaunshu S Purohit
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, Missouri 64110, United States
| | - Navid J Ayon
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 2464 Charlotte, Kansas City, Missouri 64108, United States
| | - Nathan A Oyler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 5100 Rockhill Road, Kansas City, Missouri 64110, United States
| | - Bi-Botti C Youan
- Laboratory of Future Nanomedicines and Theoretical Chronopharmaceutics, Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Missouri-Kansas City , 2464 Charlotte, Kansas City, Missouri 64108, United States
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12
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Ramalapa B, Crasson O, Vandevenne M, Gibaud A, Garcion E, Cordonnier T, Galleni M, Boury F. Protein–polysaccharide complexes for enhanced protein delivery in hyaluronic acid templated calcium carbonate microparticles. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:7360-7368. [DOI: 10.1039/c7tb01538k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Chimeric proteins facilitate protein–polysaccharide interactions for enhanced delivery and controlled release of proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bathabile Ramalapa
- GLIAD – Design and application of innovative local treatments in glioblastoma
- Institut de Biologie en Santé – IRIS – CHU; CRCINA
- INSERM, Université de Nantes
- Université d'Angers
- 49933 Angers
| | - Oscar Crasson
- Laboratory for Biological Macromolecules
- Center for Protein Engineering
- Institut de Chimie B6
- University of Liège
- Liège 4000
| | - Marylène Vandevenne
- Laboratory for Biological Macromolecules
- Center for Protein Engineering
- Institut de Chimie B6
- University of Liège
- Liège 4000
| | - Alain Gibaud
- CNRS UMR 6283-Institut des Molécules et des Matériaux du Mans
- 72085 LE MANS Cedex 09
- France
| | - Emmanuel Garcion
- GLIAD – Design and application of innovative local treatments in glioblastoma
- Institut de Biologie en Santé – IRIS – CHU; CRCINA
- INSERM, Université de Nantes
- Université d'Angers
- 49933 Angers
| | - Thomas Cordonnier
- GLIAD – Design and application of innovative local treatments in glioblastoma
- Institut de Biologie en Santé – IRIS – CHU; CRCINA
- INSERM, Université de Nantes
- Université d'Angers
- 49933 Angers
| | - Moreno Galleni
- Laboratory for Biological Macromolecules
- Center for Protein Engineering
- Institut de Chimie B6
- University of Liège
- Liège 4000
| | - Frank Boury
- GLIAD – Design and application of innovative local treatments in glioblastoma
- Institut de Biologie en Santé – IRIS – CHU; CRCINA
- INSERM, Université de Nantes
- Université d'Angers
- 49933 Angers
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Yilmaz ZE, Jérôme C. Polyphosphoesters: New Trends in Synthesis and Drug Delivery Applications. Macromol Biosci 2016; 16:1745-1761. [PMID: 27654308 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.201600269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Polymers with repeating phosphoester linkages in the backbone are biodegradable materials that emerge as a promising class of novel biomaterials, especially in the field of drug delivery systems. In contrast to aliphatic polyesters, the pentavalency of the phosphorus atom offers a large diversity of structures and as a consequence a wide range of properties for these materials. In this paper, it is focused on the synthesis of well-defined polyphosphoesters (PPEs) by organocatalyzed ring-opening polymerization, improving the functionalities by combination with click reactions, degradation of functional PPEs and their cytotoxicity, and inputs for applications in drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Ergul Yilmaz
- Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), University of Liège (ULg), CESAM-RU, Sart Tilman, Building B6a, Liège, B-4000, Belgium
| | - Christine Jérôme
- Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), University of Liège (ULg), CESAM-RU, Sart Tilman, Building B6a, Liège, B-4000, Belgium
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