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Chen Y, Jin X, Kuang Y, Zhang S, Zhang C, Li C, Guo B. A Novel Oral Drugs Delivery System for Borneol Based on HiCap ®100 and Maltodextrin: Preparation, Characterization, and the Investigation as an Intestinal Absorption Enhancer. AAPS PharmSciTech 2023; 24:197. [PMID: 37783919 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-023-02654-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The objective of this study was to create a new method for delivering oral borneol (BN) drug that would improve stability. This was accomplished through microencapsulation using HiCap®100 and maltodextrin (MD), resulting in HiCap®100/MD/BN microcapsules (MCs). The HiCap®100/MD/BN MCs were evaluated in terms of encapsulation efficiency (EE%), drug loading (DL%), morphological observations, particle size distribution, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis, drug degradation rate studies, and in vitro release behavior. The effect of MCs on intestinal permeability in a rat model was assessed using the model drug "florfenicol" (FF) in single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) study. The relationship between MCs and P-glycoprotein (P-gp) was further investigated in comparison with verapamil (Ver). The irritation of MCs was assessed by histological analysis. The MCs in a spherical structure with micron-scale dimensions were obtained. The EE% and DL% were (86.71 ± 0.96)% and (6.03 ± 0.32)%, respectively. MCs played a significantly protective role in drug degradation rate studies. In vitro release studies indicated that the release behavior of MCs was significantly better than BN at the three-release media, and the cumulative release rate exceeded 90% in 15 min. The SPIP studies showed that MCs significantly enhanced the absorption of FF in rats. Compared with Ver, MCs were not promoted by a single inhibition of P-gp. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE)-stained images showed that MCs had no obvious irritation and toxic effects on the intestines of rats. Thus, the preparation of HiCap®100/MD/BN MCs improves the stability of BN, which has certain scientific value for the development and application of BN, and provides unique perspectives for future BN-related researches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, 280 East Waihuan Road, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Center of Topical Precise Drug Delivery System, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowei Jin
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, 280 East Waihuan Road, Guangzhou, 510006, China
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Center of Topical Precise Drug Delivery System, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanhui Kuang
- Guangdong Baiyun Mountain and Hutchison Whampoa Ltd., Modern Chinese Medicine Research Institute, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Sisi Zhang
- Guangdong Baiyun Mountain and Hutchison Whampoa Ltd., Modern Chinese Medicine Research Institute, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Chuanping Zhang
- Guangdong Baiyun Mountain and Hutchison Whampoa Ltd., Modern Chinese Medicine Research Institute, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Chuyuan Li
- Guangdong Baiyun Mountain and Hutchison Whampoa Ltd., Modern Chinese Medicine Research Institute, Guangzhou, 510515, China
| | - Bohong Guo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, Guangzhou Higher Education Mega Center, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, 280 East Waihuan Road, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Center of Topical Precise Drug Delivery System, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou, 510006, People's Republic of China.
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Qin L, Cui Z, Wu Y, Wang H, Zhang X, Guan J, Mao S. Challenges and Strategies to Enhance the Systemic Absorption of Inhaled Peptides and Proteins. Pharm Res 2022; 40:1037-1055. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-022-03435-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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3
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Translation of pulmonary protein therapy from bench to bedside: Addressing the bioavailability challenges. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2021.102664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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Subongkot T, Ngawhirunpat T, Opanasopit P. Development of Ultradeformable Liposomes with Fatty Acids for Enhanced Dermal Rosmarinic Acid Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:404. [PMID: 33803716 PMCID: PMC8003044 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13030404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to develop ultradeformable liposomes (ULs) with fatty acids, namely, oleic, linoleic, and linolenic acid, to improve the skin penetration of rosmarinic acid. This study also investigated the vesicle-skin interaction and skin penetration pathway of ULs with fatty acids using the co-localization technique of multifluorescently labeled particles. The prepared ULs were characterized in terms of size, surface charge, size distribution, shape, % entrapment efficiency (% EE), and % loading efficiency (% LE). The prepared ULs with fatty acids had an average particle size between 50.37 ± 0.3 and 59.82 ± 17.3 nm with a size distribution within an acceptable range and exhibited a negative surface charge. The average % EE and % LE were 9 and 24.02, respectively. The in vitro skin penetration study found that ULs with oleic acid could significantly increase the skin penetration of rosmarinic acid compared to ULs. According to confocal laser scanning microscopy observations, this study suggested that UL vesicles attach to the skin before releasing the entrapped drug to penetrate the skin. These findings suggested that ULs with oleic acid penetrated the skin via the transfollicular pathway as a major penetration pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thirapit Subongkot
- Pharmaceutical Innovations of Natural Products Unit (PhInNat), Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Burapha University, Chonburi 20131, Thailand
| | - Tanasait Ngawhirunpat
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand; (T.N.); (P.O.)
| | - Praneet Opanasopit
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom 73000, Thailand; (T.N.); (P.O.)
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Yamamoto A, Ukai H, Morishita M, Katsumi H. Approaches to improve intestinal and transmucosal absorption of peptide and protein drugs. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 211:107537. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Reczyńska K, Khanal D, Pielichowska K, Pamuła E, Chrzanowski W. Distinct Influence of Saturated Fatty Acids on Malignant and Nonmalignant Human Lung Epithelial Cells. Lipids 2020; 55:117-126. [PMID: 31970788 DOI: 10.1002/lipd.12216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The impact of saturated fatty acids (FA) on viability and properties of malignant and nonmalignant cells has not been studied in detail so far. The present study was aimed at evaluation of the influence of saturated FA (10:0-18:0) on malignant (A459) and nonmalignant (BEAS-2B) human lung epithelial cells. FA strongly affected A549 cells, but not BEAS-2B cells. Viability of A549 cells incubated with 14:0-18:0 was decreased by 53-91% as compared to untreated cells. Cell membrane stiffness in those cells as measured by atomic force microscopy was also reduced. Median value of apparent Young's modulus of untreated A549 cell membrane was 16.9 kPa and it decreased to 8.9 kPa for cells incubated with 14:0. Viability and mechanical properties of BEAS-2B cells were not altered by presence of FA. Those surprising discrepancies can be related to the differences in FA uptake rate. A549 cells were found to incorporate higher amount of FA and this corresponded to decrease in cell membrane stiffness and reduced cell viability. The performed studies showed that saturated FA have distinct influence on various types of cells, which may be exploited in development of the advanced lipid drug delivery systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Reczyńska
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Kraków, Poland.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Pharmacy Building A15, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Dipesh Khanal
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Pharmacy Building A15, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Kinga Pielichowska
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Kraków, Poland
| | - Elżbieta Pamuła
- Department of Biomaterials and Composites, Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Science and Technology, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059, Kraków, Poland.,Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Pharmacy Building A15, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Wojciech Chrzanowski
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Pharmacy Building A15, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia.,The University of Sydney Nano Institute, Physics Road, New South Wales, 2006, Sydney, Australia
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Snyder S, Murundi S, Crawford L, Putnam D. Enabling P-glycoprotein inhibition in multidrug resistant cancer through the reverse targeting of a quinidine-PEG conjugate. J Control Release 2020; 317:291-299. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Kim Y, Hwang S, Khalmuratova R, Kang S, Lee M, Song Y, Park JW, Yu J, Shin HW, Lee Y. α-Helical cell-penetrating peptide-mediated nasal delivery of resveratrol for inhibition of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. J Control Release 2019; 317:181-194. [PMID: 31785303 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2019.11.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we examined the potential of cell-penetrating peptide (CPP)-based intranasal drug delivery for the treatment of localized nasal diseases. Many charged or non-hydrophobic drugs have difficulty penetrating into the nasal epithelium due to intrinsic membrane impermeability and rapid mucociliary clearance in the nasal cavity. To treat chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps (CRSwNP), one of the most common localized nasal diseases, we conjugated resveratrol (RSV) to an amphiphilic α-helical leucine (L)- and lysine (K)-rich CPP (LK) and intranasally delivered it to the interior of nasal epithelial cells for inhibiting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) caused by hypoxia-inducible factor 1α. The RSV-LK conjugate could penetrate into the nasal epithelium and efficiently inhibit EMT, nasal polyp formation, epithelial disruption, and related inflammation in an eosinophilic CRSwNP mouse model, at 10-fold lower doses and with 3-fold less frequent administration than free RSV. Due to the rapid penetration into the nasal epithelium and the therapeutic effect of the RSV-LK conjugate at much lower doses than free RSV, this CPP-based delivery system, with the ability to overcome the tight nasal epithelial barrier, may provide a new strategy for the treatment of localized nasal diseases without the systemic side effects of cargo drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Kim
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Soyoung Hwang
- Obstructive Upper airway Research (OUaR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Roza Khalmuratova
- Obstructive Upper airway Research (OUaR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunah Kang
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Mingyu Lee
- Obstructive Upper airway Research (OUaR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Youngjun Song
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Wan Park
- Obstructive Upper airway Research (OUaR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Ischemic/Hypoxic Disease Institute, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Cancer Research Institute, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaehoon Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Education, College of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun-Woo Shin
- Obstructive Upper airway Research (OUaR) Laboratory, Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University Graduate School, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Ischemic/Hypoxic Disease Institute, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Cancer Research Institute, College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea; Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Seoul National University Hospital, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea.
| | - Yan Lee
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
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Zhao J, Yang J, Xie Y. Improvement strategies for the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble flavonoids: An overview. Int J Pharm 2019; 570:118642. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.118642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Ghadiri M, Young PM, Traini D. Strategies to Enhance Drug Absorption via Nasal and Pulmonary Routes. Pharmaceutics 2019; 11:pharmaceutics11030113. [PMID: 30861990 PMCID: PMC6470976 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics11030113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2019] [Revised: 03/03/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
New therapeutic agents such as proteins, peptides, and nucleic acid-based agents are being developed every year, making it vital to find a non-invasive route such as nasal or pulmonary for their administration. However, a major concern for some of these newly developed therapeutic agents is their poor absorption. Therefore, absorption enhancers have been investigated to address this major administration problem. This paper describes the basic concepts of transmucosal administration of drugs, and in particular the use of the pulmonary or nasal routes for administration of drugs with poor absorption. Strategies for the exploitation of absorption enhancers for the improvement of pulmonary or nasal administration are discussed, including use of surfactants, cyclodextrins, protease inhibitors, and tight junction modulators, as well as application of carriers such as liposomes and nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maliheh Ghadiri
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Paul M Young
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | - Daniela Traini
- Respiratory Technology, Woolcock Institute of Medical Research and Discipline of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Impact of Sodium N-[8-(2-Hydroxybenzoyl)amino]-caprylate on Intestinal Permeability for Notoginsenoside R1 and Salvianolic Acids in Caco-2 Cells Transport and Rat Pharmacokinetics. Molecules 2018; 23:molecules23112990. [PMID: 30453465 PMCID: PMC6278436 DOI: 10.3390/molecules23112990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
For drugs with high hydrophilicity and poor membrane permeability, absorption enhancers can promote membrane permeability and improve oral bioavailability. Sodium N-[8-(2-hydroxybenzoyl)amino]caprylate (SNAC) is a new kind of absorption enhancer that has good safety. To investigate the absorption enhancement effect of SNAC on non-polar charged and polar charged drugs and establish the absorption enhancement mechanism of SNAC, SNAC was synthesized and characterized. Two representative hydrophilic drugs—notoginsenoside R1 (R1) and salvianolic acids (SAs)—were selected as model drugs. In vitro Caco-2 cells transport and in vivo rat pharmacokinetics studies were conducted to examine the permeation effect of SNAC on R1 and SAs. R1, rosmarinic acid (RA), salvianolic acid B (SA-B) and salvianolic acid B (SA-A) were determined to compare the permeation enhancement of different drugs. The MTT assay results showed that SNAC had no toxicity to Caco-2 cells. The transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER) of Caco-2 cell monolayer displayed that SNAC facilitated passive transport of polar charged SAs through the membrane of epithelial enterocytes. The pharmacokinetics results demonstrated that area under the curve (AUC) of RA, SA-B and SA-A with administration of SAs containing SNAC was 35.27, 8.72 and 9.23 times than administration of SAs. Tmax of RA, SA-B and SA-A were also prolonged. The AUC of R1 with administration of R1 containing SNAC was 2.24-times than administration of R1. SNAC is more effective in promoting absorption of SAs than R1. The study demonstrated that SNAC significantly improved bioavailability of R1 and SAs. What’s more, the effect of SNAC on absorption enhancement of charged drugs was larger than that of non-charged drugs. The current findings not only confirm the usefulness of SNAC for the improved delivery of R1 and SAs but also demonstrate the importance of biopharmaceutics characterization in the dosage form development of drugs.
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Lucarini S, Fagioli L, Cavanagh R, Liang W, Perinelli DR, Campana M, Stolnik S, Lam JKW, Casettari L, Duranti A. Synthesis, Structure⁻Activity Relationships and In Vitro Toxicity Profile of Lactose-Based Fatty Acid Monoesters as Possible Drug Permeability Enhancers. Pharmaceutics 2018; 10:pharmaceutics10030081. [PMID: 29970849 PMCID: PMC6161018 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics10030081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Permeability enhancers are receiving increased attention arising from their ability to increase transepithelial permeability and thus, bioavailability of orally or pulmonary administered biopharmaceutics. Here we present the synthesis and the in vitro assaying of a series of lactose-based non-ionic surfactants, highlighting the relationship between their structure and biological effect. Using tensiometric measurements the critical micelle concentrations (CMCs) of the surfactants were determined and demonstrate that increasing hydrophobic chain length reduces surfactant CMC. In vitro testing on Caco-2 intestinal and Calu-3 airway epithelia revealed that cytotoxicity, assessed by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release assays, is presented for most of the surfactants at concentrations greater than their CMCs. Further biological study demonstrates that application of cytotoxic concentrations of the surfactants is associated with depolarizing mitochondrial membrane potential, increasing nuclear membrane permeability and activation of effector caspases. It is, therefore, proposed that when applied at cytotoxic levels, the surfactants are inducing apoptosis in both cell lines tested. Importantly, through the culture of epithelial monolayers on Transwell® supports, the surfactants demonstrate the ability to reversibly modulate transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), and thus open tight junctions, at non-toxic concentrations, emphasizing their potential application as safe permeability enhancers in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Lucarini
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Urbino, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy.
| | - Laura Fagioli
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Urbino, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy.
| | - Robert Cavanagh
- Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Wanling Liang
- Department of Pharmacology & Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China.
| | | | - Mario Campana
- Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), ISIS Neutron and Muon Source, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Didcot OX11 0QX, UK.
| | - Snjezana Stolnik
- Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering Division, School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK.
| | - Jenny K W Lam
- Department of Pharmacology & Pharmacy, The University of Hong Kong, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Luca Casettari
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Urbino, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy.
| | - Andrea Duranti
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Urbino, 61029 Urbino (PU), Italy.
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