Synthesis of an oleic acid based pH-responsive lipid and its application in nanodelivery of vancomycin

Acid-sensitive prodrugs; a promising approach for site-specific and targeted drug release

Drugs administered through conventional formulations are devoid of targeting and often spread to various undesired sites, leading to sub-lethal concentrations at the site of action and the emergence of undesired effects. Hence, therapeutic agents should be delivered in a controlled manner at target sites. Currently, stimuli-based drug delivery systems have demonstrated a remarkable potential for the site-specific delivery of therapeutic moieties. pH is one of the widely exploited stimuli for drug delivery as several pathogenic conditions such as tumor cells, infectious and inflammatory sites are characterized by a low pH environment. This review article aims to demonstrate various strategies employed in the design of acid-sensitive prodrugs, providing an overview of commercially available acid-sensitive prodrugs. Furthermore, we have compiled the progress made for the development of new acid-sensitive prodrugs currently undergoing clinical trials. These prodrugs include albumin-binding prodrugs (Aldoxorubicin and DK049), polymeric micelle (NC-6300), polymer conjugates (ProLindac™), and an immunoconjugate (IMMU-110). The article encompasses a broad spectrum of studies focused on the development of acid-sensitive prodrugs for anticancer, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory agents. Finally, the challenges associated with the acid-sensitive prodrug strategy are discussed, along with future directions.

Recent advances in nanostructured delivery systems for vancomycin

Despite the development of new generations of antibiotics, vancomycin remained as a high-efficacy antibiotic for treating the infections caused by MRSA. Researchers have explored various nanoformulations, aiming to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of vancomycin. Such novel formulations improve the effectiveness of drug cargoes in treating bacterial infections and minimizing the risk of adverse effects. The vast of researches have focuses on enhancing the permeation ability of vancomycin through different biological barriers especially those of gastrointestinal tract. Increasing the drug loading and tuning the drug release from nanocarrier are other important goal for many conducted studies. This study reviews the newest nano-based formulations for vancomycin as a key antibiotic in treating hospitalized bacterial infections.

Lipidic Nanosystem as State-of-the-Art Nanovehicle for Biomedical Applications

Lipids have tremendously transformed the biomedical field, especially in the last few decades. Nanosystems, especially Lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), have emerged as the most demanding nanovehicle systems for delivering drugs, genes, and other diagnostic agents. Unique attributes and characteristic features such as higher encapsulation efficiency, stealth effect, ability to solubilize a wide range of drugs, capability to inhibit P-gp efflux pumps, and higher stability play a vital role in engaging this nanosystem. LNCs are a lipid-based nano-drug delivery method that combines the most significant traits of liposomes with polymeric nanoparticles. Structurally, LNCs have an oily core consisting of medium and long triglycerides and an aqueous phase encased in an amphiphilic shell. This manuscript crosstalks LNCs for various biomedical applications. A detailed elaboration of the structural composition, methods of preparation, and quality control aspects has also been attained, with particular emphasis on application approaches, ongoing challenges, and their possible resolution. The manuscript also expounds the preclinical data and discusses the patents atlas of LNCs to assist biomedical scientists working in this area and foster additional research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12088-024-01298-3.

Multi-functional pH-responsive and biomimetic chitosan-based nanoplexes for targeted delivery of ciprofloxacin against bacterial sepsis

Bacterial sepsis is a mortal syndromic disease characterized by a complex pathophysiology that hinders effective targeted therapy. This study aimed to develop multifunctional, biomimetic and pH-responsive ciprofloxacin-loaded chitosan (CS)/sodium deoxycholic acid (SDC) nanoplexes (CS/SDC) nanoplexes with the ability to target and modulate the TLR4 pathway, activated during sepsis. The formulated nanoplexes were characterized in terms of physicochemical properties, in silico and in vitro potential biological activities. The optimal formulation showed good biocompatibility and stability with appropriate physicochemical parameters. The surface charge changed from negative at pH 7.4 to positive at pH 6.0 accompanied with a significantly faster release of CIP at pH 6.0 compared to 7.4. The biomimicry was elucidated by in silico tools and MST and results confirmed strong binding between the system and TLR4. Furthermore, the system revealed 4- and 2-fold antibacterial enhancement at acidic pH, and 3- and 4-fold better antibiofilm efficacy against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) respectively, compared to bare CIP. In addition, enhanced bacterial efflux pump inhibition was demonstrated by CS/SDC nanoplexes. Finally, the developed nanosystem showed excellent antioxidant activity against DPPH radicals. Taken together, the study confirmed the multi-functionalities of CS/SDC nanoplexes and their potential benefits in improving bacterial sepsis therapy.

Recent Advances in Pharmaceutical Approaches of Antimicrobial Agents for Selective Delivery in Various Administration Routes

Globally, the increase of pathogenic bacteria with antibiotic-resistant characteristics has become a critical challenge in medical treatment. The misuse of conventional antibiotics to treat an infectious disease often results in increased resistance and a scarcity of effective antimicrobials to be used in the future against the organisms. Here, we discuss the rise of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and the need to combat it through the discovery of new synthetic or naturally occurring antibacterial compounds, as well as insights into the application of various drug delivery approaches delivered via various routes compared to conventional delivery systems. AMR-related infectious diseases are also discussed, as is the efficiency of various delivery systems. Future considerations in developing highly effective antimicrobial delivery devices to address antibiotic resistance are also presented here, especially on the smart delivery system of antibiotics.

Synthesis of pH-responsive dimethylglycine surface-modified branched lipids for targeted delivery of antibiotics

The rampant antimicrobial resistance crisis calls for efficient and targeted drug delivery of antibiotics at the infectious site. Hence, this study aimed to synthesize a pH-responsive dimethylglycine surface-modified branched lipid (DMGSAD-lipid). The structure of the synthesized lipid was fully confirmed. The lipid polymer hybrid nanoparticles (LPHNPs) were formulated using the solvent evaporation method and characterised. Two LPHNPs (VCM_HS15_LPHNPs and VCM_RH40_LPHNPs) were formulated and characterised for size, polydispersity index (PDI), and zeta potential (ZP). Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations revealed that both the systems self-assembled to form energetically stable aggregates. The ZP of RH40_VCM_LPHNPs changed from 0.55 ± 0.14-9.44 ± 0.33 Vm, whereas for SH15_VCM_LPHNPs, ZP changed from - 1.55 ± 0.184 Vm to 9.83 ± 0.52 Vm at pH 7.4 and 6.0, respectively. The encapsulation efficiencies of VCM were above 40% while the drug release was faster at acidic pH when compared to pH 7.4. The antibacterial activity of LPHNPs against MRSA was eight-fold better in MICs at pH 6.0, compared to 7.4, when compared to bare VCM-treated specimens. The study confirms that pH-responsive LPHNPs have the potential for enhancing the treatment of bacterial infections and other diseases characterised by acidic conditions at the target site.

Smart Bacteria-Responsive Drug Delivery Systems in Medical Implants

With the rapid development of implantable biomaterials, the rising risk of bacterial infections has drawn widespread concern. Due to the high recurrence rate of bacterial infections and the issue of antibiotic resistance, the common treatments of peri-implant infections cannot meet the demand. In this context, stimuli-responsive biomaterials have attracted attention because of their great potential to spontaneously modulate the drug releasing rate. Numerous smart bacteria-responsive drug delivery systems (DDSs) have, therefore, been designed to temporally and spatially release antibacterial agents from the implants in an autonomous manner at the infected sites. In this review, we summarized recent advances in bacteria-responsive DDSs used for combating bacterial infections, mainly according to the different trigger modes, including physical stimuli-responsive, virulence-factor-responsive, host-immune-response responsive and their combinations. It is believed that the smart bacteria-responsive DDSs will become the next generation of mainstream antibacterial therapies.

Strategies and progresses for enhancing targeted antibiotic delivery

Antibiotic resistance is a global health issue and a potential risk for society. Antibiotics administered through conventional formulations are devoid of targeting effect and often spread to various undesired body sites, leading to sub-lethal concentrations at the site of action and thus resulting in emergence of resistance, as well as side effects. Moreover, we have a very slim antibiotic pipeline. Drug-delivery systems have been designed to control the rate, time, and site of drug release, and innovative approaches for antibiotic delivery provide a glint of hope for addressing these issues. This review elaborates different delivery strategies and approaches employed to overcome the limitations of conventional antibiotic therapy. These include antibiotic conjugates, prodrugs, and nanocarriers for local and targeted antibiotic release. In addition, a wide range of stimuli-responsive nanocarriers and biological carriers for targeted antibiotic delivery are discussed. The potential advantages and limitations of targeted antibiotic delivery strategies are described along with possible solutions to avoid these limitations. A number of antibiotics successfully delivered through these approaches with attained outcomes and potentials are reviewed.

Stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms for antibacterial applications

The continuously increasing bacterial resistance has become a big threat to public health worldwide, which makes it urgent to develop innovative antibacterial strategies. Nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems are considered as promising strategies in combating bacterial infections which are expected to improve the therapeutic efficacy and minimize the side effects. Unfortunately, the conventional nanodrug delivery systems always suffer from practical dilemmas, including incomplete and slow drug release, insufficient accumulation in infected sites, and weak biofilm penetration ability. Stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms are hence developed to overcome the disadvantages of conventional nanoparticles. In this review, we provide an extensive review of the recent progress of endogenous and exogenous stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms in the antibacterial area, including planktonic bacteria, intracellular bacteria, and bacterial biofilms. Taking advantage of the specific infected microenvironment (pH, enzyme, redox, and toxin), the mechanisms and strategies of the design of endogenous stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms are discussed, with an emphasis on how to improve the therapeutic efficacy and minimize side effects. How to realize controlled drug delivery using exogenous stimuli-responsive nanoplatforms especially light-responsive nanoparticles for improved antibacterial effects is another topic of this review. We especially highlight photothermal-triggered drug delivery systems by the combination of photothermal agents and thermo-responsive materials. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

Antibiotic-loaded lipid-based nanocarrier: a promising strategy to overcome bacterial infection

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), bacterial infections are one of the greatest threats to global health, food production, and life expectancy. In this sense, the development of innovative formulations aiming at greater therapeutic efficacy, safety, and shorter treatment duration compared to conventional products is urgently needed. Lipid-based nanocarriers (LBNs) have demonstrated the potential to enhance the effectiveness of available antibiotics. Among them, liposome, nanoemulsion, solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN), and nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) are the most promising due to their solid technical background for laboratory and industrial production. This review describes recent advances in developing antibiotic-loaded LBNs against susceptible and resistant bacterial strains and biofilm. LBNs revealed to be a promising alternative to deliver antibiotics due to their superior characteristics compared to conventional preparations, including their modified drug release, improved bioavailability, drug protection against chemical or enzymatic degradation, greater drug loading capacity, and biocompatibility. Antibiotic-loaded LBNs can improve current clinical drug therapy, bring innovative products and rescue discarded antibiotics. Thus, antibiotic-loaded LBNs have potential to open a window of opportunities to continue saving millions of lives and prevent the devastating impact of bacterial infection.

Application of Nanomaterials in the Prevention, Detection, and Treatment of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Due to differences in geographic surveillance systems, chemical sanitization practices, and antibiotic stewardship (AS) implementation employed during the COVID-19 pandemic, many experts have expressed concerns regarding a future surge in global antimicrobial resistance (AMR). A potential beneficiary of these differences is the Gram-positive bacteria MRSA. MRSA is a bacterial pathogen with a high potential for mutational resistance, allowing it to engage various AMR mechanisms circumventing conventional antibiotic therapies and the host’s immune response. Coupled with a lack of novel FDA-approved antibiotics reaching the clinic, the onus is on researchers to develop alternative treatment tools to mitigate against an increase in pathogenic resistance. Mitigation strategies can take the form of synthetic or biomimetic nanomaterials/vesicles employed in vaccines, rapid diagnostics, antibiotic delivery, and nanotherapeutics. This review seeks to discuss the current potential of the aforementioned nanomaterials in detecting and treating MRSA.

Nanoantibiotics to fight multidrug resistant infections by Gram-positive bacteria: hope or reality?

The spread of antimicrobial resistance in Gram-positive pathogens represents a threat to human health. To counteract the current lack of novel antibiotics, alternative antibacterial treatments have been increasingly investigated. This review covers the last decade's developments in using nanoparticles as carriers for the two classes of frontline antibiotics active on multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens, i.e., glycopeptide antibiotics and daptomycin. Most of the reviewed papers deal with vancomycin nanoformulations, being teicoplanin- and daptomycin-carrying nanosystems much less investigated. Special attention is addressed to nanoantibiotics used for contrasting biofilm-associated infections. The status of the art related to nanoantibiotic toxicity is critically reviewed.

Biomimetic pH/lipase dual responsive vitamin-based solid lipid nanoparticles for on-demand delivery of vancomycin

In this study, ascorbyl tocopherol succinate (ATS) was designed, synthesized and characterized via FT-IR, HR-MS, H¹ NMR and C¹³ NMR, to simultaneously confer biomimetic and dual responsive properties of an antibiotic nanosystem to enhance their antibacterial efficacy and reduce antimicrobial resistance. Therefore, an in silico-aided design (to mimic the natural substrate of bacterial lipase) was employed to demonstrate the binding potential of ATS to lipase (-32.93 kcal/mol binding free energy (ΔG_bind) and bacterial efflux pumps blocking potential (NorA ΔG_bind: -37.10 kcal/mol, NorB ΔG_bind: -34.46 kcal/mol). ATS bound stronger to lipase than the natural substrate (35 times lower Kd value). The vancomycin loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (VM-ATS-SLN) had a hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, polydispersity index and entrapment efficiency of 106.9 ± 1.4 nm, -16.5 ± 0.93 mV, 0.11 ± 0.012 and 61.9 ± 1.31%, respectively. In vitro biocompatibility studies revealed VM-ATS-SLN biosafety and non-haemolytic activity. Significant enhancement in VM release was achieved in response to acidified pH and lipase enzyme, compared to controls. VM-ATS-SLN showed enhanced sustained in vitro antibacterial activity for 5 days, 2-fold greater MRSA biofilm growth inhibition and 3.44-fold reduction in bacterial burden in skin infected mice model compared to bare VM. Therefore, ATS shows potential as a novel multifunctional adjuvant for effective and targeted delivery of antibiotics.

Incorporation of Antibiotics into Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: A Promising Approach to Reduce Antibiotic Resistance Emergence

Antimicrobial resistance is one of the biggest threats to global health as current antibiotics are becoming useless against resistant infectious pathogens. Consequently, new antimicrobial strategies are urgently required. Drug delivery systems represent a potential solution to improve current antibiotic properties and reverse resistance mechanisms. Among different drug delivery systems, solid lipid nanoparticles represent a highly interesting option as they offer many advantages for nontoxic targeted drug delivery. Several publications have demonstrated the capacity of SLNs to significantly improve antibiotic characteristics increasing treatment efficiency. In this review article, antibiotic-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle-related works are analyzed to summarize all information associated with applying these new formulations to tackle the antibiotic resistance problem. The main antimicrobial resistance mechanisms and relevant solid lipid nanoparticle characteristics are presented to later discuss the potential of these nanoparticles to improve current antibiotic treatment characteristics and overcome antimicrobial resistance mechanisms. Moreover, solid lipid nanoparticles also offer new possibilities for other antimicrobial agents that cannot be administrated as free drugs. The advantages and disadvantages of these new formulations are also discussed in this review. Finally, given the progress of the studies carried out to date, future directions are discussed.

Current and novel therapeutic strategies for the management of cystic fibrosis

Introduction: Cystic fibrosis (CF), is caused by mutations in the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) gene and affects thousands of people throughout the world. Lung disease is the leading cause of death in CF patients. Despite the advances in treatments, the management of CF mainly targets symptoms. Recent CFTR modulators however target common mutations in patients, alleviating symptoms of CF. Unfortunately, there is still no approved treatments for patients with rare mutations to date.Areas covered: This paper reviews current treatments of CF that mitigate symptoms and target genetic defects. The use of gene and drug delivery systems such as viral or non-viral vectors and nano-compounds to enhance CFTR expression and the activity of antimicrobials against chronic pulmonary infections respectively, will also be discussed.Expert opinion: Nano-compounds tackle biological barriers to drug delivery and revitalize antimicrobials, anti-inflammatory drugs and even genes delivery to CF patients. Gene therapy and gene editing are of particular interest because they have the potential to directly target genetic defects. Nanoparticles should be formulated to more specifically target epithelial cells, and biofilms. Finally, the development of more potent gene vectors to increase the duration of gene expression and reduce inflammation is a promising strategy to eventually cure CF.

Synthetic ionizable aminolipids induce a pH dependent inverse hexagonal to bicontinuous cubic lyotropic liquid crystalline phase transition in monoolein nanoparticles

A prospective class of materials for drug delivery is lyotropic liquid crystalline (LLC) nanoparticles, such as cubosomes and hexosomes. Efforts are being made to generate a pH dependent system, which exhibits slow release hexosomes (H₂) at physiological pH and relatively fast release cubosomes (Q₂) at acidic disease sites such as in various cancers and bacterial infection (pH ~ 5.5-6.5). Herein, we report the synthesis of nine ionizable aminolipids, which were doped into monoolein (MO) lipid nanoparticles. Using high throughput formulation and synchrotron small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), the effects of aminolipid structure and concentration on the mesophase of MO nanoparticles at various pHs were determined. As the pH changed from neutral to acidic, mesophases, could be formed in an order L₂ (inverse micelles) → H₂ → Q₂. Specifically, systems with heterocyclic oleates exhibited the H₂ to Q₂ transition at pH 5.5-6.5. Furthermore, the phase transition pH could be fine-tuned by incorporating two aminolipids into the nanoparticles. Nanoparticles with a pH dependent phase transition as described in this study may be useful as drug delivery carriers for the treatment of cancers and certain bacterial infection.

Intrinsic stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for smart drug delivery of antibacterial agents-An in-depth review of the last two decades

Antibiotic resistance due to suboptimal targeting and inconsistent antibiotic release at bacterial infection sites has driven the formulation of stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for antibacterial therapy. Unlike conventional nanocarriers, stimuli-responsive nanocarriers have the ability to specifically enhance targeting and drug release profiles. There has been a significant escalation in the design and development of novel nanomaterials worldwide; in particular, intrinsic stimuli-responsive antibiotic nanocarriers, due to their enhanced activity, improved targeted delivery, and superior potential for bacterial penetration and eradication. Herein, we provide an extensive and critical review of pH-, enzyme-, redox-, and ionic microenvironment-responsive nanocarriers that have been reported in literature to date, with an emphasis on the mechanisms of drug release, the nanomaterials used, the nanosystems constructed and the antibacterial efficacy of the nanocarriers. The review also highlights further avenues of research for optimizing their potential and commercialization. This review confirms the potential of intrinsic stimuli-responsive nanocarriers for enhanced drug delivery and antibacterial killing. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

pH-Responsive Micelles From an Oleic Acid Tail and Propionic Acid Heads Dendritic Amphiphile for the Delivery of Antibiotics

The aim of this study was to synthesize a novel biocompatible pH-responsive oleic acid-based dendritic lipid amphiphile (OLA-SPDA) which self-assembled into stable micelles (OLA-SPDA -micelles) with a relatively low critical micelle concentration (CMC) of 5.6 × 10^-6 M. The formulated micelles had particle size, polydispersity index (PDI) and zeta potential (ZP) of 84.16 ± 0.184 nm, 0.199 ± 0.011 and -42.6 ± 1.98 mV, respectively, at pH 7.4. The vancomycin (VCM) encapsulation efficiency was 78.80 ± 3.26%. The micelles demonstrated pH-responsiveness with an increase in particle size to 141.1 ± 0.0707 nm and a much faster release profile at pH 6.0, as compared to pH 7.4. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of VCM-OLA-SPDA-micelle against methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was 8-fold lower compared to bare VCM, and the formulation had a 4-fold lower MIC at pH 6.0 when compared to the formulation's MIC at pH 7.4. MRSA viability assay showed the micelles had a percentage killing of 93.39% when compared bare-VCM (58.21%) at the same MIC (0.98 μg/mL). In vivo mice (BALB/c) skin infection models showed an 8-fold reduction in MRSA burden after treatment with VCM-OLA-SPDA-micelles when compared with bare VCM. The above results suggest that pH-responsive VCM-OLA-SPDA-micelles has the potential to be an effective carrier to enhance therapeutic outcomes against infections characterised by low pH.

Formulation technologies and advances for oral delivery of novel nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides

Antibiotic resistance has become a global crisis, driving the exploration for novel antibiotics and novel treatment approaches. Among these research efforts two classes of antibiotics, bicyclic nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides, have recently shown promise as novel antimicrobial agents with the possibility to treat multi-drug resistant infections. However, they suffer from the issue of poor oral bioavailability due to disparate factors: low solubility in the case of nitroimidazoles (BCS class II drugs), and low permeability in the case of peptides (BCS class III drugs). Moreover, antimicrobial peptides present another challenge as they are susceptible to chemical and enzymatic degradation, which can present an additional pharmacokinetic hurdle for their oral bioavailability. Formulation technologies offer a potential means for improving the oral bioavailability of poorly permeable and poorly soluble drugs, but there are still drawbacks and limitations associated with this approach. This review discusses in depth the challenges associated with oral delivery of nitroimidazoles and antimicrobial peptides and the formulation technologies that have been used to overcome these problems, including an assessment of the drawbacks and limitations associated with the technologies that have been applied. Furthermore, the potential for supercritical fluid technology to overcome the shortcomings associated with conventional drug formulation methods is reviewed.

Antimicrobial lipids in nano-carriers for antibacterial delivery

Antimicrobial lipids have been recognised as broad-spectrum antibacterial agents. They can directly act on and lyse bacterial cell membrane, and inhibit bacterial growth through a range of mechanisms. Antimicrobial lipids include free fatty acids, monoglycerides, cholesteryl ester, sphingolipids and etc., with the first two being the most extensively studied. Their application is usually hindered by the low solubility of the compounds themselves, and nano-sized lipid-based carriers can endow druggability to these antimicrobial agents for they improve lipid solubility and dispersion in aqueous formulations. Nano-carriers also possess advantages in overcoming drug resistance. In this review we will discuss different kinds of antimicrobial lipids in nano-sized carriers for antibacterial delivery. CAL02 as a promising infection-controlling liposome consisted of cholesterol and sphingomyelin will also be included for it's a unique anti-infection approach, which signifies that the underlying antibacterial roles antimicrobial lipids needs to be further addressed. With the global emergence of antibiotic resistance, antimicrobial lipids formulated in nano-carriers might provide a novel alternative in combatting infectious diseases.

Chinese White Wax Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as a Novel Nanocarrier of Curcumin for Inhibiting the Formation of Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms

Chinese white wax solid lipid nanoparticles (cwSLNs) were prepared by high shear homogenization and ultrasound methods. Using an optimized formula, spherical cwSLNs with an average particle size of 401.9 ± 21.3 nm were obtained. The cwSLNs showed high entrapment efficiency, approximately 84.6%, for loading curcumin. The curcumin loaded cwSLNs (Cur-cwSLNs) exhibited sustained drug release properties. Notably, Cur-cwSLNs had a higher drug release rate at pH 4.5 than at pH 7.4, which suggested their applicability in an acidic environment. Cur-cwSLNs were able to inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus and were more effective at reducing the biofilms produced by this bacterium compared to free curcumin. This study confirmed that cwSLNs may be novel carriers for increasing the bioavailability of curcumin with the potential to inhibit the formation of S. aureus biofilms.