Development and in vitro characterization of polymeric nanoparticles containing recombinant adrenomedullin-2 intended for therapeutic angiogenesis

Advanced Drug Delivery Micro- and Nanosystems for Cardiovascular Diseases

Advanced drug delivery micro- and nanosystems have been widely explored due to their appealing specificity/selectivity, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and low toxicity. They can be applied for the targeted delivery of pharmaceuticals, with the benefits of good biocompatibility/stability, non-immunogenicity, large surface area, high drug loading capacity, and low leakage of drugs. Cardiovascular diseases, as one of the primary mortalities cause worldwide with significant impacts on the quality of patients’ life, comprise a variety of heart and circulatory system pathologies, such as peripheral vascular diseases, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and coronary artery diseases. Designing novel micro- and nanosystems with suitable targeting properties and smart release behaviors can help circumvent crucial challenges of the tolerability, low stability, high toxicity, and possible side- and off-target effects of conventional drug delivery routes. To overcome different challenging issues, namely physiological barriers, low efficiency of drugs, and possible adverse side effects, various biomaterials-mediated drug delivery systems have been formulated with reduced toxicity, improved pharmacokinetics, high bioavailability, sustained release behavior, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy for targeted therapy of cardiovascular diseases. Despite the existing drug delivery systems encompassing a variety of biomaterials for treating cardiovascular diseases, the number of formulations currently approved for clinical use is limited due to the regulatory and experimental obstacles. Herein, the most recent advancements in drug delivery micro- and nanosystems designed from different biomaterials for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases are deliberated, with a focus on the important challenges and future perspectives.

Polymeric nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of myocardial infarction: Challenges and future prospects

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite extensive efforts to provide early diagnosis and adequate treatment regimens, detection of MI still faces major limitations and pathological MI complications continue to threaten the recovery of survivors. Polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) represent novel noninvasive drug delivery systems for the diagnosis and treatment of MI and subsequent prevention of fatal heart failure. In this review, we cover the recent advances in polymeric NP-based diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for MI and their application as multifunctional theranostic tools. We also discuss the in vivo behavior and toxicity profile of polymeric NPs, their application in noninvasive imaging, passive, and active drug delivery, and use in cardiac regenerative therapy. We conclude with the challenges faced with polymeric nanosystems and suggest future efforts needed for clinical translation.

De novo Drug Delivery Modalities for Treating Damaged Hearts: Current Challenges and Emerging Solutions

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of mortality, resulting in approximately one-third of deaths worldwide. Among CVD, acute myocardial infarctions (MI) is the leading cause of death. Current treatment modalities for treating CVD have improved over the years, but the demand for new and innovative therapies has been on the rise. The field of nanomedicine and nanotechnology has opened a new paradigm for treating damaged hearts by providing improved drug delivery methods, specifically targeting injured areas of the myocardium. With the advent of innovative biomaterials, newer therapeutics such as growth factors, stem cells, and exosomes have been successfully delivered to the injured myocardial tissue, promoting improvement in cardiac function. This review focuses on three major drug delivery modalities: nanoparticles, microspheres, and hydrogels, and their potential for treating damaged hearts following an MI.

CRIF1 deficiency suppresses endothelial cell migration via upregulation of RhoGDI2

Rho GDP-dissociation inhibitor (RhoGDI), a downregulator of Rho family GTPases, prevents nucleotide exchange and membrane association. It is responsible for the activation of Rho GTPases, which regulate a variety of cellular processes, such as migration. Although RhoGDI2 has been identified as a tumor suppressor gene involved in cellular migration and invasion, little is known about its role in vascular endothelial cell (EC) migration. CR6-interacting factor 1 (CRIF1) is a CR6/GADD45-interacting protein with important mitochondrial functions and regulation of cell growth. We examined the expression of RhoGDI2 in CRIF1-deficient human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and its role in cell migration. Expression of RhoGDI2 was found to be considerably higher in CRIF1-deficient HUVECs along with suppression of cell migration. Moreover, the phosphorylation levels of Akt and CREB were decreased in CRIF1-silenced cells. The Akt-CREB signaling pathway was implicated in the changes in endothelial cell migration caused by CRIF1 downregulation. In addition to RhoGDI2, we identified another factor that promotes migration and invasion of ECs. Adrenomedullin2 (ADM2) is an autocrine/paracrine factor that regulates vascular tone and other vascular functions. Endogenous ADM2 levels were elevated in CRIF1-silenced HUVECs with no effect on cell migration. However, siRNA-mediated depletion of RhoGDI2 or exogenous ADM2 administration significantly restored cell migration via the Akt-CREB signaling pathway. In conclusion, RhoGDI2 and ADM2 play important roles in the migration of CRIF1-deficient endothelial cells.

Development and Characterization of PLGA Nanoparticles Containing 17-DMAG, an Hsp90 Inhibitor

Leishmaniasis is a spectrum of neglected tropical diseases and its cutaneous form (CL) is characterized by papillary or ulcerated skin lesions that negatively impact patients' quality of life. Current CL treatments suffer limitations, such as severe side effects and high cost, making the search for new therapeutic alternatives an imperative. In this context, heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) could present a novel therapeutic target, as evidence suggests that Hsp90 inhibitors, such as 17-Dimethylaminoethylamino-17-Demethoxygeldanamycin (17-DMAG), may represent promising chemotherapeutic agents against CL. As innovative input for formulation development of 17-DMAG, nano-based drug delivery systems could provide controlled release, targeting properties, and reduced drug toxicity. In this work, a double emulsion method was used to develop poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles containing 17-DMAG. The nanoparticle was developed using two distinct protocols: Protocol 1 (P1) and Protocol 2 (P2), which differed concerning the organic solvent (acetone or dichloromethane, respectively) and procedure used to form double-emulsions (Ultra-Turrax® homogenization or sonication, respectively). The nanoparticles produced by P2 were comparatively smaller (305.5 vs. 489.0 nm) and more homogeneous polydispersion index (PdI) (0.129 vs. 0.33) than the ones made by P1. Afterward, the P2 was optimized and the best composition consisted of 2 mg of 17-DMAG, 100 mg of PLGA, 5% of polyethylene glycol (PEG 8000), 1.5 mL of the internal aqueous phase, 1% of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and 4 mL of the organic phase. Optimized P2 nanoparticles had a particle size of 297.2 nm (288.6-304.1) and encapsulation efficacy of 19.35% (15.42-42.18) by the supernatant method and 31.60% (19.9-48.79) by the filter/column method. Release kinetics performed at 37°C indicated that ~16% of the encapsulated 17-DMAG was released about to 72 h. In a separate set of experiments, a cell uptake assay employing confocal fluorescence microscopy revealed the internalization by macrophages of P2-optimized rhodamine B labeled nanoparticles at 30 min, 1, 2, 4, 6, 24, 48, and 72 h. Collectively, our results indicate the superior performance of P2 concerning the parameters used to assess nanoparticle development. Therefore, these findings warrant further research to evaluate optimized 17-DMAG-loaded nanoparticles (NP2-17-DMAG) for toxicity and antileishmanial effects in vitro and in vivo.

Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) delivery system improve the protective efficacy of recombinant antigen TA4 against Eimeria tenella infection

Eimeria tenella is a protozoan parasite endemic in chickens and is one of the causative agents of avian coccidiosis. The aim of this research was to determine if poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles carrying recombinant TA4 protein of E. tenella (rEtTA4) could improve the level of protective immunity against E. tenella challenge. Recombinant TA4 protein was expressed and purified. Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) loaded with rEtTA4 (PLGA-rEtTA4) nanoparticles was prepared and was delivered to 2-week-old layer chickens via intramuscular inoculation. Chickens injected with PBS and PLGA nanoparticles were served as control groups. The rEtTA4 and PLGA-rEtTA4 nanoparticles induced changes of serum cytokines, IgY levels, and T lymphocytes subpopulation, and the protective efficacy against E. tenella challenge was evaluated. Results showed that both rEtTA4 and PLGA-rEtTA4 vaccination groups induced significantly higher levels of specific EtTA4 IgY antibody and IL-17 and higher proportion of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes. However, no significant differences were observed in the proportion of CD4⁺ T lymphocytes compared with the PBS control. Chickens immunized with rEtTA4 and PLGA-rEtTA4 prominently increased the BW gains and decreased oocyst output compared with chickens immunized with PBS and PLGA after oral challenge with E. tenella. Poly (D, L-lactide-co-glycolide) encapsulated rEtTA4 nanoparticles–immunized chickens significantly induced higher levels of interferon gamma, IL-6, and IL-17 and a little bit higher proportion of CD8⁺ T lymphocytes compared with rEtTA4 subunit vaccine–immunized chickens. Thus, PLGA encapsulated rEtTA4 nanoparticles appeared to have great potential to enhance the immune response and improved the protective efficacy against E. tenella infection. Our results provided available protective subunit vaccine rEtTA4 and PLGA loaded with rEtTA4 nanoparticles against coccidiosis and suggested that PLGA nanoparticles could be an effective adjuvant to enhance the protective efficacy of rEtTA4 subunit vaccine.

Nanostructured Polymeric, Liposomal and Other Materials to Control the Drug Delivery for Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death globally, taking an estimated 17.9 million lives each year, representing one third of global mortality. As existing therapies still have limited success, due to the inability to control the biodistribution of the currently approved drugs, the quality of life of these patients is modest. The advent of nanomedicine has brought new insights in innovative treatment strategies. For this reason, several novel nanotechnologies have been developed for both targeted and prolonged delivery of therapeutics to the cardiovascular system tο minimize side effects. In this regard, nanoparticles made of natural and/or synthetic nanomaterials, like liposomes, polymers or inorganic materials, are emerging alternatives for the encapsulation of already approved drugs to control their delivery in a targeted way. Therefore, nanomedicine has attracted the attention of the scientific community as a potential platform to deliver therapeutics to the injured heart. In this review, we discuss the current types of biomaterials that have been investigated as potential therapeutic interventions for CVDs as they open up a host of possibilities for more targeted and effective therapies, as well as minimally invasive treatments.