Rapid scale-up and production of active-loaded PEGylated liposomes

Scalable microfluidic method for tunable liposomal production by a design of experiment approach

Liposomes constitute a widespread drug delivery platform, gaining more and more attention from the pharmaceutical industry and process development scientists. Their large-scale production as medicinal products for human use is all but trivial, especially when parenteral administration is required. In this study an off-the-shelf microfluidic system and a methodological approach are presented for the optimization, validation and scale-up of highly monodisperse liposomes manufacturing. Starting from a Doxil®-like formulation (HSPC, MPEG-DSPE and cholesterol), a rational approach (Design of Experiments, DoE) was applied for the screening of the process parameters affecting the quality attributes of the product (mainly size and polydispersity). Additional DoEs were conducted to determine the effect of critical process parameters "CPPs" (cholesterol concentration, total flow rate "TFR" and flow rate ratio "FRR"), thus assessing the formulation and process robustness. A scale-up was then successfully accomplished. The procedure was applied to a Marqibo®-like formulation as well (sphingomyelin and cholesterol) to show the generality of the proposed formulation, process development and scale-up approach. The application of the system and method herein presented enables the large-scale manufacturing of liposomes, in compliance with the internationally recognized regulatory standards for pharmaceutical development (Quality by Design).

Production of liposomes by microfluidics: The impact of post-manufacturing dilution on drug encapsulation and lipid loss

Microfluidic mixing is recognized as a convenient method to produce liposomes for its scalability and reproducibility. Numerous studies have described the effect of process parameters such as flow rate ratios and total flow rate on size and size distribution of vesicles. In this work, we focused our attention on the effect of flow rate ratios on the encapsulation efficiency of liposomes, as we hypothesized that different amount of residual organic solvent could affect the retention of lipophilic drug molecules within the bilayer. In a further step, we investigated how the liposomes integrity and loading were impacted by different methods of solvent removal: direct dialysis and dilution & dialysis. Liposomes were prepared by rapidly mixing an ethanolic solution of lipids and a model drug with buffer in a herringbone micromixer, employing four different flow rate ratios (FRR, 4:1, 7:3, 3:2, 1:1). Quercetin, resveratrol and ascorbyl palmitate were used as model antioxidant drugs with different lipophilicity. Data showed that liposomes produced using lower flow rate ratios (i.e., with more residual ethanol) had lower encapsulation efficiencies as well as a more prominent loss of lipids from the bilayer following purification with direct dialysis. If the amount of residual ethanol was reduced to 5% (dilution & dialysis method), the lipids and drug leakage was prevented. Such effect was correlated with the drug aggregation propensity in different ethanol/water mixtures measured by molecular dynamics simulations. Overall, these results highlight the need to tailor the purification method basing on the molecular properties of the loaded drug to ensure high encapsulation and limit the waste of material.

Prospectives and challenges of nano-tailored biomaterials-assisted biological molecules delivery for tissue engineering purposes

Nano carriers have gained more attention for their possible medical and technological applications. Tailored nanomaterials can transport medications efficiently to targeted areas and allow for sustained medication discharge, reducing undesirable toxicities while boosting curative effectiveness. Nonetheless, transitioning nanomedicines from experimental to therapeutic applications has proven difficult, so different pharmaceutical incorporation approaches in nano scaffolds are discussed. Then numerous types of nanobiomaterials implemented as carriers and their manufacturing techniques are explored. This article is also supported by various applications of nanobiomaterials in the biomedical field.

Effect of Micromixer Design on Lipid Nanocarriers Manufacturing for the Delivery of Proteins and Nucleic Acids

Lipid-based nanocarriers have emerged as helpful tools to deliver sensible biomolecules such as proteins and oligonucleotides. To have a fast and robust microfluidic-based nanoparticle synthesis method, the setup of versatile equipment should allow for the rapid transfer to scale cost-effectively while ensuring tunable, precise and reproducible nanoparticle attributes. The present work aims to assess the effect of different micromixer geometries on the manufacturing of lipid nanocarriers taking into account the influence on the mixing efficiency by changing the fluid-fluid interface and indeed the mass transfer. Since the geometry of the adopted micromixer varies from those already published, a Design of Experiment (DoE) was necessary to identify the operating (total flow, flow rate ratio) and formulation (lipid concentration, lipid molar ratios) parameters affecting the nanocarrier quality. The suitable application of the platform was investigated by producing neutral, stealth and cationic liposomes, using DaunoXome®, Myocet®, Onivyde® and Onpattro® as the benchmark. The effect of condensing lipid (DOTAP, 3-10-20 mol%), coating lipids (DSPE-PEG550 and DSPE-PEG2000), as well as structural lipids (DSPC, eggPC) was pointed out. A very satisfactory encapsulation efficiency, always higher than 70%, was successfully obtained for model biomolecules (myoglobin, short and long nucleic acids).

Dual-loaded liposomal carriers to combat chemotherapeutic resistance in breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

The resistance to chemotherapy is a significant hurdle in breast cancer treatment, prompting the exploration of innovative strategies. This review discusses the potential of dual-loaded liposomal carriers to combat chemoresistance and improve outcomes for breast cancer patients.

AREAS COVERED

This review discusses breast cancer chemotherapy resistance and dual-loaded liposomal carriers. Drug efflux pumps, DNA repair pathways, and signaling alterations are discussed as chemoresistance mechanisms. Liposomes can encapsulate several medicines and cargo kinds, according to the review. It examines how these carriers improve medication delivery, cancer cell targeting, and tumor microenvironment regulation. Also examined are dual-loaded liposomal carrier improvement challenges and techniques.

EXPERT OPINION

The use of dual-loaded liposomal carriers represents a promising and innovative strategy in the battle against chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer. This article has explored the various mechanisms of chemoresistance in breast cancer, emphasizing the potential of dual-loaded liposomal carriers to overcome these challenges. These carriers offer versatility, enabling the encapsulation and precise targeting of multiple drugs with different modes of action, a crucial advantage when dealing with the complexity of breast cancer treatment.

Rapid liposomal formulation for nucleolin targeting to rhabdomyosarcoma cells

Rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) is the most common pediatric soft tissue sarcoma. More effective and less toxic therapies are urgently needed for high-risk patients. Peptide-guided targeted drug delivery can increase the therapeutic index of encapsulated drugs and improve patients' well-being. To apply this strategy to RMS, we identified the peptide F3 in a screening for peptides binding to RMS cells surface. F3 binds to nucleolin, which is present on the surface of RMS cells and is abundantly expressed at the mRNA level in RMS patients' biopsies compared to healthy tissues. We developed a rapid microfluidic formulation of F3-decorated PEGylated liposomes and remote loading of the chemotherapeutic drug vincristine. Size, surface charge, drug loading and retention of targeted and control liposomes were studied. Enhanced cellular binding and uptake were observed in three different nucleolin-positive RMS cell lines. Importantly, F3-functionalized liposomes loaded with vincristine were up to 11 times more cytotoxic than non-targeted liposomes for RMS cell lines. These results demonstrate that F3-functionalized liposomes are promising for targeted drug delivery to RMS and warrant further in vivo investigations.

Transnasal targeted delivery of therapeutics in central nervous system diseases: a narrative review

Currently, neurointervention, surgery, medication, and central nervous system (CNS) stimulation are the main treatments used in CNS diseases. These approaches are used to overcome the blood brain barrier (BBB), but they have limitations that necessitate the development of targeted delivery methods. Thus, recent research has focused on spatiotemporally direct and indirect targeted delivery methods because they decrease the effect on nontarget cells, thus minimizing side effects and increasing the patient's quality of life. Methods that enable therapeutics to be directly passed through the BBB to facilitate delivery to target cells include the use of nanomedicine (nanoparticles and extracellular vesicles), and magnetic field-mediated delivery. Nanoparticles are divided into organic, inorganic types depending on their outer shell composition. Extracellular vesicles consist of apoptotic bodies, microvesicles, and exosomes. Magnetic field-mediated delivery methods include magnetic field-mediated passive/actively-assisted navigation, magnetotactic bacteria, magnetic resonance navigation, and magnetic nanobots-in developmental chronological order of when they were developed. Indirect methods increase the BBB permeability, allowing therapeutics to reach the CNS, and include chemical delivery and mechanical delivery (focused ultrasound and LASER therapy). Chemical methods (chemical permeation enhancers) include mannitol, a prevalent BBB permeabilizer, and other chemicals-bradykinin and 1-O-pentylglycerol-to resolve the limitations of mannitol. Focused ultrasound is in either high intensity or low intensity. LASER therapies includes three types: laser interstitial therapy, photodynamic therapy, and photobiomodulation therapy. The combination of direct and indirect methods is not as common as their individual use but represents an area for further research in the field. This review aims to analyze the advantages and disadvantages of these methods, describe the combined use of direct and indirect deliveries, and provide the future prospects of each targeted delivery method. We conclude that the most promising method is the nose-to-CNS delivery of hybrid nanomedicine, multiple combination of organic, inorganic nanoparticles and exosomes, via magnetic resonance navigation following preconditioning treatment with photobiomodulation therapy or focused ultrasound in low intensity as a strategy for differentiating this review from others on targeted CNS delivery; however, additional studies are needed to demonstrate the application of this approach in more complex in vivo pathways.

Use of Microfluidics to Prepare Lipid-Based Nanocarriers

Lipid-based nanoparticles (LBNPs) are an important tool for the delivery of a diverse set of drug cargoes, including small molecules, oligonucleotides, and proteins and peptides. Despite their development over the past several decades, this technology is still hindered by issues with the manufacturing processes leading to high polydispersity, batch-to-batch and operator-dependent variability, and limits to the production volumes. To overcome these issues, the use of microfluidic techniques in the production of LBNPs has sharply increased over the past two years. Microfluidics overcomes many of the pitfalls seen with conventional production methods, leading to reproducible LBNPs at lower costs and higher yields. In this review, the use of microfluidics in the preparation of various types of LBNPs, including liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and solid lipid nanoparticles for the delivery of small molecules, oligonucleotides, and peptide/protein drugs is summarized. Various microfluidic parameters, as well as their effects on the physicochemical properties of LBNPs, are also discussed.

Microfluidic fabrication of photo-responsive Ansamitocin P-3 loaded liposomes for the treatment of breast cancer

Ansamitocin P-3 (AP-3) is a promising anticancer agent. However, its low solubility has limited its biomedical applications. The preparation of liposomal formulations for the delivery of low solubility drugs using the microfluidic platform has attracted increasing attention in the pharmaceutical industry. In addition, photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a non-invasive and efficient strategy for the treatment of cancers, making photodynamic liposomes one of the most promising drug delivery systems (DDSs). In this study, a recently developed microfluidic device (swirl mixer) was used for the manufacturing of temperature-sensitive liposomes (TSL) that can be activated by near-infrared stimulation for the treatment of breast cancer. Changing the processing parameters of the microfluidic system allowed for optimizing the properties of the produced liposomes (e.g., particle size and size distribution). For the first time, the anticancer drug AP-3 and the photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG) were encapsulated into TSL (AP-3/ICG@TSL) during microfluidic processing. The results show that AP-3/ICG@TSL are biocompatible and can significantly reduce the toxicity of AP-3 to normal tissues. After infrared laser irradiation, the heat generated from ICG not only resulted in the cancer cell toxicity, but also facilitated the release of AP-3 in tumor cells. AP-3/ICG@TSL with infrared laser irradiation was found to be able to significantly inhibit the growth of MCF-7 multicellular tumor spheroids (MCTSs) in vitro and MCF-7 tumors subcutaneously inoculated in nude mice as an in vivo model. In addition, it also showed no signs of damage to other organs. The current results demonstrated that the AP-3/ICG@TSL fabricated using the microfluidic swirl mixer is a promising DDS for breast cancer therapy.

Microfluidic Manufacture of Lipid-Based Nanomedicines

Nanoparticulate technologies have revolutionized drug delivery allowing for passive and active targeting, altered biodistribution, controlled drug release (temporospatial or triggered), enhanced stability, improved solubilization capacity, and a reduction in dose and adverse effects. However, their manufacture remains immature, and challenges exist on an industrial scale due to high batch-to-batch variability hindering their clinical translation. Lipid-based nanomedicines remain the most widely approved nanomedicines, and their current manufacturing methods remain discontinuous and face several problems such as high batch-to-batch variability affecting the critical quality attributes (CQAs) of the product, laborious multistep processes, need for an expert workforce, and not being easily amenable to industrial scale-up involving typically a complex process control. Several techniques have emerged in recent years for nanomedicine manufacture, but a paradigm shift occurred when microfluidic strategies able to mix fluids in channels with dimensions of tens of micrometers and small volumes of liquid reagents in a highly controlled manner to form nanoparticles with tunable and reproducible structure were employed. In this review, we summarize the recent advancements in the manufacturing of lipid-based nanomedicines using microfluidics with particular emphasis on the parameters that govern the control of CQAs of final nanomedicines. The impact of microfluidic environments on formation dynamics of nanomaterials, and the application of microdevices as platforms for nanomaterial screening are also discussed.

Microfluidic Manufacturing of Liposomes: Development and Optimization by Design of Experiment and Machine Learning

Liposomes constitute the most exploited drug-nanocarrier with several liposomal drugs on the market. Microfluidic-based preparation methods stand up as a promising approach with high reproducibility and the ability to scale up. In this study, liposomes composed of DOPC, cholesterol, and DSPE-PEG 2000 with different molar ratios were fabricated using a microfluidic system. Process and conditions were optimized by applying design of experiments (DoE) principles. Furthermore, data were used to build an artificial neural network (ANN) model, to predict size and polydispersity index (PDI). Sets of runs were designed by DoE and performed on a micromixer microfluidic chip. Lipids' molar ratio and the process parameters, i.e. total flow rate (TFR) and flow rate ratio (FRR), were found to be the most influential factors on the formation of vesicles with target size and PDI under 100 nm and lower than 0.2, respectively. Size and PDI were predicted by the ANN model for 3 preparations with defined experimental conditions. The results showed no significant difference in size and PDI between the preparations and their values calculated with the ANN. In conclusion, production of optimized liposomes with high reproducibility was achieved by the application of microfluidic manufacturing processes, DoE, and Artificial Intelligence (AI). Microfluidic-based preparation methods assisted by computational tools would enable a faster development and clinical transfer of nanobased medications.

Lipid-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Diseases Managements

Liposomes are tiny lipid-based vesicles composed of one or more lipid bilayers, which facilitate the encapsulation of hydrophilic, lipophilic, and amphiphilic biological active agents. The description of the physicochemical properties, formulation methods, characteristics, mechanisms of action, and large-scale manufacturing of liposomes as delivery systems are deeply discussed. The benefits, toxicity, and limitations of the use of liposomes in pharmacotherapeutics including in diagnostics, brain targeting, eye and cancer diseases, and in infections are provided. The experimental approaches that may reduce, or even bypass, the use of liposomal drug drawbacks is described. The application of liposomes in the treatment of numerous diseases is discussed.

Single-Step Synthesis of Highly Tunable Multifunctional Nanoliposomes for Synergistic Cancer Therapy

Cancer is still one of the major diseases that humans have not conquered yet. Nanotechnology has promoted the development of multifunctional nanoparticles, which integrate diagnostic and treatment abilities for tumor imaging and therapy. However, its preparation methods usually require complicated unit operations, which result in large batch-to-batch differences, poor reproducibility, high production costs, and difficulty in clinical transformation. Furthermore, precisely manufacturing nanoliposomes with different tunable features (e.g., size, surface charge, targeting ligands, and so forth) remains a challenge, limiting effective nanoliposome optimization for tumor therapy. Due to the accurate control of the synthesis process and continuous operation mode, microfluidic technology becomes an emerging approach for the manufacturing of nanoliposomes. However, there are few reports on the single-step preparation of complex nanoliposomes by precise tuning of the physical properties, while investigating the influence of anti-cancer efficiency. Herein, we have prepared multifunctional nanoliposomes with accurate tuning properties through a microfluidic device in a single step, with synergistic photodynamic and chemodynamic effects for targeted tumor therapy. The preparation method provides an effective way for the one-step preparation of multifunctional nanoparticles with controllable particle sizes and surface properties.

Anti-COVID-19 Nanomaterials: Directions to Improve Prevention, Diagnosis, and Treatment

Following the announcement of the outbreak of COVID-19 by the World Health Organization, unprecedented efforts were made by researchers around the world to combat the disease. So far, various methods have been developed to combat this "virus" nano enemy, in close collaboration with the clinical and scientific communities. Nanotechnology based on modifiable engineering materials and useful physicochemical properties has demonstrated several methods in the fight against SARS-CoV-2. Here, based on what has been clarified so far from the life cycle of SARS-CoV-2, through an interdisciplinary perspective based on computational science, engineering, pharmacology, medicine, biology, and virology, the role of nano-tools in the trio of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment is highlighted. The special properties of different nanomaterials have led to their widespread use in the development of personal protective equipment, anti-viral nano-coats, and disinfectants in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 out-body. The development of nano-based vaccines acts as a strong shield in-body. In addition, fast detection with high efficiency of SARS-CoV-2 by nanomaterial-based point-of-care devices is another nanotechnology capability. Finally, nanotechnology can play an effective role as an agents carrier, such as agents for blocking angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors, gene editing agents, and therapeutic agents. As a general conclusion, it can be said that nanoparticles can be widely used in disinfection applications outside in vivo. However, in in vivo applications, although it has provided promising results, it still needs to be evaluated for possible unintended immunotoxicity. Reviews like these can be important documents for future unwanted pandemics.

The Hitchhiker's Guide to Human Therapeutic Nanoparticle Development

Nanomedicine plays an essential role in developing new therapies through novel drug delivery systems, diagnostic and imaging systems, vaccine development, antibacterial tools, and high-throughput screening. One of the most promising drug delivery systems are nanoparticles, which can be designed with various compositions, sizes, shapes, and surface modifications. These nanosystems have improved therapeutic profiles, increased bioavailability, and reduced the toxicity of the product they carry. However, the clinical translation of nanomedicines requires a thorough understanding of their properties to avoid problems with the most questioned aspect of nanosystems: safety. The particular physicochemical properties of nano-drugs lead to the need for additional safety, quality, and efficacy testing. Consequently, challenges arise during the physicochemical characterization, the production process, in vitro characterization, in vivo characterization, and the clinical stages of development of these biopharmaceuticals. The lack of a specific regulatory framework for nanoformulations has caused significant gaps in the requirements needed to be successful during their approval, especially with tests that demonstrate their safety and efficacy. Researchers face many difficulties in establishing evidence to extrapolate results from one level of development to another, for example, from an in vitro demonstration phase to an in vivo demonstration phase. Additional guidance is required to cover the particularities of this type of product, as some challenges in the regulatory framework do not allow for an accurate assessment of NPs with sufficient evidence of clinical success. This work aims to identify current regulatory issues during the implementation of nanoparticle assays and describe the major challenges that researchers have faced when exposing a new formulation. We further reflect on the current regulatory standards required for the approval of these biopharmaceuticals and the requirements demanded by the regulatory agencies. Our work will provide helpful information to improve the success of nanomedicines by compiling the challenges described in the literature that support the development of this novel encapsulation system. We propose a step-by-step approach through the different stages of the development of nanoformulations, from their design to the clinical stage, exemplifying the different challenges and the measures taken by the regulatory agencies to respond to these challenges.

Nano-Traditional Chinese Medicine: a promising strategy and its recent advances

Traditional Chinese medicine(TCM) has been applied to the prevention and treatment of numerous diseases and has an irreplaceable role of rehabilitation and health care. However, the application of TCM is...

Development of next generation nanomedicine-based approaches for the treatment of cancer: we've barely scratched the surface

Interest in nanomedicines has grown rapidly over the past two decades, owing to the promising therapeutic applications they may provide, particularly for the treatment of cancer. Personalised medicine and 'smart' actively targeted nanoparticles represent an opportunity to deliver therapies directly to cancer cells and provide sustained drug release, in turn providing overall lower off-target toxicity and increased therapeutic efficacy. However, the successful translation of nanomedicines from encouraging pre-clinical findings to the clinic has, to date, proven arduous. In this review, we will discuss the use of nanomedicines for the treatment of cancer, with a specific focus on the use of polymeric and lipid nanoparticle delivery systems. In particular, we examine approaches exploring the surface functionalisation of nanomedicines to elicit active targeting and therapeutic effects as well as challenges and future directions for nanoparticles in cancer treatment.

A Systematic Approach for Liposome and Lipodisk Preclinical Formulation Development by Microfluidic Technology

Lipid nanoparticles have transformed the drug delivery field enhancing the therapeutic drug performance of small molecules and biologics with several approved drug products. However, in industry, these more complex drug delivery systems such as liposomes require more material and time to develop. Here, we report a liposome and lipodisk decision tree with model compounds of diverse physicochemical properties to understand how to resourcefully optimize encapsulation efficiency (EE) for these lipid-based drug delivery systems. We have identified trends with physicochemical properties such as Log P, where higher Log P compounds such as curcumin were able to efficiently load into the lipid bilayer resulting in high EE with altering the drug/lipid (D/L) ratio. Moderate Log P compounds such as cyclosporine A and dexamethasone had significantly higher encapsulation in lipodisks, which contain higher amounts of PEG lipid compared to liposomes. The EE of negative Log P compounds, like acyclovir, remained low regardless of altering the D/L ratio and PEG concentrations. In this study, microfluidic techniques were employed to fabricate liposomes and lipodisks formulations allowing for a reproducible strategy for formulation development. Both liposome and lipodisk of curcumin demonstrated enhanced in vivo performance compared with a conventional formulation in the rat pharmacokinetic study. This combination of approaches with multiple model compounds and lipid-based drug delivery systems provides a systematic guidance to effective strategies to generate higher EE with minimal drug waste and expedite the process for preclinical development when applied to industry compounds.

Lipid Nanoparticle Technology for Delivering Biologically Active Fatty Acids and Monoglycerides

There is enormous interest in utilizing biologically active fatty acids and monoglycerides to treat phospholipid membrane-related medical diseases, especially with the global health importance of membrane-enveloped viruses and bacteria. However, it is difficult to practically deliver lipophilic fatty acids and monoglycerides for therapeutic applications, which has led to the emergence of lipid nanoparticle platforms that support molecular encapsulation and functional presentation. Herein, we introduce various classes of lipid nanoparticle technology and critically examine the latest progress in utilizing lipid nanoparticles to deliver fatty acids and monoglycerides in order to treat medical diseases related to infectious pathogens, cancer, and inflammation. Particular emphasis is placed on understanding how nanoparticle structure is related to biological function in terms of mechanism, potency, selectivity, and targeting. We also discuss translational opportunities and regulatory needs for utilizing lipid nanoparticles to deliver fatty acids and monoglycerides, including unmet clinical opportunities.

Lipid-Based Nanoparticles for Delivery of Vaccine Adjuvants and Antigens: Toward Multicomponent Vaccines

Despite the many advances that have occurred in the field of vaccine adjuvants, there are still unmet needs that may enable the development of vaccines suitable for more challenging pathogens (e.g., HIV and tuberculosis) and for cancer vaccines. Liposomes have already been shown to be highly effective as adjuvant/delivery systems due to their versatility and likely will find further uses in this space. The broad potential of lipid-based delivery systems is highlighted by the recent approval of COVID-19 vaccines comprising lipid nanoparticles with encapsulated mRNA. This review provides an overview of the different approaches that can be evaluated for the design of lipid-based vaccine adjuvant/delivery systems for protein, carbohydrate, and nucleic acid-based antigens and how these strategies might be combined to develop multicomponent vaccines.

Manufacturing Considerations for the Development of Lipid Nanoparticles Using Microfluidics

In the recent of years, the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for RNA delivery has gained considerable attention, with a large number in the clinical pipeline as vaccine candidates or to treat a wide range of diseases. Microfluidics offers considerable advantages for their manufacture due to its scalability, reproducibility and fast preparation. Thus, in this study, we have evaluated operating and formulation parameters to be considered when developing LNPs. Among them, the flow rate ratio (FRR) and the total flow rate (TFR) have been shown to significantly influence the physicochemical characteristics of the produced particles. In particular, increasing the TFR or increasing the FRR decreased the particle size. The amino lipid choice (cationic-DOTAP and DDAB; ionisable-MC3), buffer choice (citrate buffer pH 6 or TRIS pH 7.4) and type of nucleic acid payload (PolyA, ssDNA or mRNA) have also been shown to have an impact on the characteristics of these LNPs. LNPs were shown to have a high (>90%) loading in all cases and were below 100 nm with a low polydispersity index (≤0.25). The results within this paper could be used as a guide for the development and scalable manufacture of LNP systems using microfluidics.

Issues affecting nanomedicines on the way from the bench to the market

The development of innovative nanomedicine has raised the standards over the last few decades.