A transferosome-loaded bigel for enhanced transdermal delivery and antibacterial activity of vancomycin hydrochloride

Development of paroxetine loaded nanotransferosomal gel for intranasal delivery with enhanced antidepressant activity in rats

The aim of this study was to develop paroxetine (PXT) loaded nanotransferosomal gel (PXT-NTFG) for intranasal brain delivery. The process involved fabricating PXT-NTFs (paroxetine-loaded nanotransferosomes) through a thin film hydration method and optimizing them based on parameters such as particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI), and entrapment efficiency (EE). The optimized PXT-NTFs exhibited uniform morphology with a PS of 158.30 ± 2.73 nm, low PDI (0.142 ± 0.072), high ZP (21.00 ± 0.75 mV), and excellent EE (88.09 ± 3.40 %). Characterization through various techniques confirmed the incorporation of PXT into the nanotransferosomes and its conversion to amorphous state. Moreover, PXT-NTFG was formulated with suitable viscosity and mucoadhesive properties. In vitro release studies demonstrated sustained drug release from PXT-NTFG at different pH levels as compared to PXT-NTFs and NTF dispersion. Similarly, ex vivo experiments showed 4 folds enhanced drug permeation from PXT-NTFG when compared with PXT conventional gel. Stability studies indicated that the optimized PXT-NTFs remained stable for four months at 4°C and 25°C. Additionally, improved behavioral outcomes, increased neuronal survival rates, and upregulated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression was observed in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced depressed Sprague-Dawley rats after treatment with PXT-NTFG as compared to PXT-dispersion treated and untreated LPS-control groups. Notably, the formulation led to a significant reduction in brain and plasma TNF-α levels. In conclusion, intranasal PXT-NTFG is a promising formulation with sustained drug release, improved brain targeting and enhanced antidepressant activity.

Breaking boundaries: the advancements in transdermal delivery of antibiotics

Transdermal drug delivery systems (TDDS) for antibiotics have seen significant advances in recent years that aimed to improve the efficacy and safety of these drugs. TDDS offer many advantages over other conventional delivery systems such as non-invasiveness, controlled-release pattern, avoidance of first-pass metabolism. The objective of this review is to provide an overview on the recent advances in the TDDS of different groups of antibiotics including β-lactams, tetracyclines, macrolides, and lincosamides, utilized for their effective delivery through the skin and to explore the challenges associated with this field. The majority of antibiotics do not have favorable properties for passive transdermal delivery. Thus, novel strategies have been employed to improve the delivery of antibiotics through the skin, such as the use of nanotechnology (nanoparticles, solid-lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, vesicular carriers, and liposomes) or the physical enhancement techniques like microneedles and ultrasound. In conclusion, the transdermal delivery systems could be a promising method for delivering antibiotics that have the potential to improve patient outcomes and enhance the efficacy of drugs. Further research and development are still needed to explore the potential of delivering more antibiotic drugs by using various transdermal drug delivery approaches.

Genistein transfersome-embedded topical delivery system for skin melanoma treatment: in vitro and ex vivo evaluations

Skin melanoma is considered the most dangerous form of skin cancer due to its association with high risk of metastasis, high mortality rate and high resistance to different treatment options. Genistein is a natural isoflavonoid with known chemotherapeutic activity. Unfortunately, it has low bioavailability due to its poor aqueous solubility and excessive metabolism. In the current study, genistein was incorporated into transferosomal hydrogel to improve its bioavailability. The prepared transferosomal formulations were characterized regarding: particle size; polydispersity index; zeta potential; encapsulation efficiency; TEM; FTIR; DSC; XRD; in vitro drug release; viscosity; pH; ex vivo anti-tumor activity on 3D skin melanoma spheroids and 1-year stability study at different storage temperatures. The optimized formulation has high encapsulation efficiency with an excellent particle size that will facilitate its penetration through the skin. The transfersomes have a spherical shape with sustained drug release profile. The anti-tumor activity evaluation of genistein transfersome revealed that genistein is a potent chemotherapeutic agent with enhanced penetration ability through the melanoma spheroids when incorporated into transfersomes. Stability study results demonstrate the high physical and chemical stability of our formulations. All these outcomes provide evidence that our genistein transferosomal hydrogel is a promising treatment option for skin melanoma.

Nanocarrier-Mediated Dermal Drug Delivery System of Antimicrobial Agents for Targeting Skin and Soft Tissue Infections

Antimicrobial resistance in disease-causing microbes is seen as a severe problem that affects the entire world, makes therapy less effective, and raises mortality rates. Dermal antimicrobial therapy becomes a desirable choice in the management of infectious disorders since the rising resistance to systemic antimicrobial treatment frequently necessitates the use of more toxic drugs. Nanoparticulate systems such as nanobactericides, which have built-in antibacterial activity, and nanocarriers, which function as drug delivery systems for conventional antimicrobials, are just two examples of the treatment methods made feasible by nanotechnology. Silver nanoparticles, zinc oxide nanoparticles, and titanium dioxide nanoparticles are examples of inorganic nanoparticles that are efficient on sensitive and multidrug-resistant bacterial strains both as nanobactericides and nanocarriers. To stop the growth of microorganisms that are resistant to standard antimicrobials, various antimicrobials for dermal application are widely used. This review covers the most prevalent microbes responsible for skin and soft tissue infections, techniques to deliver dermal antimicrobials, topical antimicrobial safety concerns, current issues, challenges, and potential future developments. A thorough and methodical search of databases, such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Science Direct, and others, using specified keyword combinations, such as "antimicrobials," "dermal," "nanocarriers," and numerous others, was used to gather relevant literature for this work.

Lipid nanocarrier-based bigel of Piper betel oil for analgesic and anti-inflammatory applications

Present study reports analgesic and anti-inflammatory potential of Piper betel (L.) leaf oil loaded lipid nanocarrier (BLNs)-embedded bigel. BLNs were developed by solvent evaporation technique and were characterised by FESEM, Cryo-TEM, mean diameter, zeta potential, loading efficiency, etc. BLNs embedded bigel (BLNs-G) was evaluated for analgesic and anti-inflammatory efficacy in rat model. Data showed spherical BLNs with intact lamellarity, 138.2 ± 1.08 nm mean diameter, 0.182 PDI, -46.6 ± 0.61 mV zeta potential, 76.2 ± 2.1% (w/w) loading efficiency and a sustained release in vitro. BLNs-G was homogenous with satisfied viscosity (40 734 ± 1.7 cps), spreadability (8.3 ± 1.5 g.cm sec-1), extrudability (91.33 ± 1.3% w/w) along with a sustained permeation ex vivo. Significant analgesic and anti-inflammatory action were depicted by BLNs-G (1% w/w) in rat model (p ˂ 0.05) within 30 minutes post topical application. In silico docking study revealed high affinity of major phytoactive components with key analgesic/inflammatory mediators. Further pre-clinical investigations are warranted for futuristic clinical application of BLNs-G.

Lipid-Based Gels for Delivery of 3-O-Ethyl L-Ascorbic acid in Topical Applications

This study explores the incorporation of 10% 3-O-ethyl L-ascorbic acid (ETVC), a derivative of vitamin C, into two lipid gel systems: a hydrogel (HG) consisting exclusively of lipids and water and a bigel (BG) combining the hydrogel with an oleogel made from olive oil and beeswax. We investigated the ETVC release profiles from both materials using synthetic membranes and measured their permeation through porcine skin in vitro. Additionally, the interaction of these lipid gel systems with the stratum corneum (SC) was determined. Results from the release study indicate that the BG exhibited slower ETVC release compared to the HG. The permeation experiments showed that the presence of lipids in the formulations enhanced ETVC retention in the skin. The HG delivered a higher amount to the SC, while the BG achieved greater retention in the epidermis. This difference is attributed to the different lipophilic nature of each material. The structural analysis of SC lipids revealed that the organization of surface lipids remained unaltered by the application of the gels. Finally, an in vitro efficacy test in porcine skin using methylene blue indicated that our ETVC gels exhibited antioxidant activity. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential of lipid-based gels for topical applications.

Formulation and Evaluation of a Transferosomal Gel of Famciclovir for Transdermal Use

Objectives

Famciclovir, the drug of choice for cold sores and recurrent genital herpes, has poor oral bioavailability and is associated with numerous side effects. The study aimed to explore the possibility of transdermal application of famciclovir through a transferosome-loaded gelling system to localize the drug at the site of application with improved penetrability, therapeutic effects, and comfort.

Materials and Methods

Transferosomes of famciclovir were prepared using tween 80, phospholipid, and cholesterol. To optimize drug entrapment and the vesicular size of the transferosomes, a central composite design was employed. The optimized formulation was evaluated for physicochemical characteristics, surface morphology, and degree of deformability. The optimized product was included in the Carbopol 940 gelling system. The gel was evaluated for ex vivo permeation, skin irritation, drug deposition at various skin layers, and histopathological analysis.

Results

The design optimization yielded an optimized product (FAMOPT) of nanosized (339 nm) stable vesicles of the transferosome of famciclovir. The surface morphology analysis revealed the formation of nanovesicles without aggregation. Compatibility between the drug and excipients was established. The elasticity of the vesicles demonstrated resistance to leakage. The permeation of the drug was enhanced by 2.8 times. The gel was found to be non-irritating and non-sensitizing to the animal skin. The drug deposition at various skin layers was remarkably improved, indicating effective drug penetration. The histopathological examination further demonstrated the penetration of nano-vesiculate drugs through deeper layers of the skin.

Conclusion

Hence, nano-vesicular famciclovir delivery is a promising alternative to conventional famciclovir delivery with enhanced local and systemic action for herpes treatment.

Recent advances in nanostructured delivery systems for vancomycin

Despite the development of new generations of antibiotics, vancomycin remained as a high-efficacy antibiotic for treating the infections caused by MRSA. Researchers have explored various nanoformulations, aiming to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of vancomycin. Such novel formulations improve the effectiveness of drug cargoes in treating bacterial infections and minimizing the risk of adverse effects. The vast of researches have focuses on enhancing the permeation ability of vancomycin through different biological barriers especially those of gastrointestinal tract. Increasing the drug loading and tuning the drug release from nanocarrier are other important goal for many conducted studies. This study reviews the newest nano-based formulations for vancomycin as a key antibiotic in treating hospitalized bacterial infections.

Designing of a new transdermal antibiotic delivery polymeric membrane modified by functionalized SBA-15 mesoporous filler

A new drug delivery system using an asymmetric polyethersulfone (PES) membrane modified by SBA-15 and glutamine-modified SBA-15 (SBA-Q) was prepared in this study by the aim of azithromycin delivery enhancement in both in vitro and ex vivo experiments. The research focused on optimizing membrane performance by adjusting critical parameters including drug concentration, membrane thickness, modifier percentage, polymer percentage, and pore maker percentage. To characterize the fabricated membranes, various techniques were employed, including scanning electron microscopy, water contact angle, and tensile strength assessments. Following optimization, membrane composition of 17% PES, 2% polyvinylpyrrolidone, 1% SBA-15, and 0.5% SBA-Q emerged as the most effective. The optimized membranes demonstrated a substantial increase in drug release (906 mg/L) compared to the unmodified membrane (440 mg/L). The unique membrane structure, with a dense top layer facilitating sustained drug release and a porous sub-layer acting as a drug reservoir, contributed to this improvement. Biocompatibility assessments, antibacterial activity analysis, blood compatibility tests, and post-diffusion tissue integrity evaluations confirmed the promising biocompatibility of the optimized membranes. Moreover, long-term performance evaluations involving ten repeated usages underscored the reusability of the optimized membrane, highlighting its potential for sustained and reliable drug delivery applications.

Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes for the treatment of hypertrophic scars: In vitro appraisal, bioactivity evaluation, and clinical study

Non-invasive treatment options for hypertrophic scars (HTS) are limited, and treating HTS remains challenging due to their unappealing appearance and associated social stigma. In this work, a novel transfersomal system named Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomes (AATs) was prepared. AATs were evaluated for their skin permeability, anti-inflammatory activity, and other characteristic parameters to determine the most promising formulation. Asiatic acid-entrapped transfersomal gel (AATG), which was obtained by incorporating the lead AATs in a gel base, underwent testing in an 8-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled, split-skin clinical study. The net skin elasticity (R5), melanin index (MI), and skin surface hydration were analyzed employing Cutometer®, Mexameter®, and Corneometer®, respectively, in order to evaluate the effectiveness of the developed AATG. AATs exhibited vesicular sizes and zeta potential values within the range of (27.15 ± 0.95 to 63.54 ± 2.51 nm) and (-0.010 to -0.129 mV), respectively. TW80AAT gave the highest %EE (90.84 ± 2.99%), deformability index (101.70 ± 11.59 mgs-1), permeation flux at 8 h (0.146 ± 0.005 mg/cm2/h), and anti-inflammatory activity (71.65 ± 1.83%). The clinical study results of AATG indicated no adverse skin reactions. Furthermore, product efficacy tests demonstrated a significant reduction in MI and an increase in net skin elasticity at 2, 4, and 8 weeks. These pilot study outcomes support the effectiveness of the AATG.

Nanophytosomal Gel of Heydotis corymbosa (L.) Extract against Psoriasis: Characterisation, In Vitro and In Vivo Biological Activity

The current study was conducted to examine the possible advantages of Heydotis corymbosa (L.) Lam. extract nanogel as a perspective for enhanced permeation and extended skin deposition in psoriasis-like dermatitis. Optimised nanophytosomes (NPs) were embedded in a pluronic gel base to obtain nanogel and tested ex vivo (skin penetration and dermatokinetics) and in vivo. The optimised NPs had a spherical form and entrapment efficiency of 73.05 ± 1.45% with a nanosized and zeta potential of 86.11 nm and -10.40 mV, respectively. Structural evaluations confirmed encapsulation of the drug in the NPs. Topical administration of prepared nanogel to a rat model of psoriasis-like dermatitis revealed its specific in vivo anti-psoriatic efficacy in terms of drug activity compared to the control and other formulations. Nanogel had improved skin integrity and downregulation of inflammatory cytokines. These findings suggest that developed phytoconstituent-based nanogel has the potential to alleviate psoriasis-like dermatitis with better skin retention and effectiveness.

Dermal Delivery of Hypericum perforatum (L.) Loaded Nanogel: Formulation to Preclinical Psoriasis Assessment

BACKGROUND

Nanophytosomes represent an effective choice for topical drug delivery systems thanks to their small size, general non-toxicity, ease of functionalization and high surface to volume ratio. The goal of the current study was to investigate the potential benefits of using Hypericum perforatum extract nanogel as a means of improving skin penetration and prolonging skin deposition in dermatitis similar to psoriasis.

METHODS

Nanophytosomes (NPs) were developed, optimised and thoroughly characterised. The optimised NPs were then placed in a Carbopol gel base matrix and tested ex-vivo (skin penetration and dermatokinetic) and in-vivo (antipsoriatic activity in an Imiquimod-induced psoriatic rat model).

RESULTS

The optimised NPs had a spherical form and entrapment efficiency of 69.68% with a nanosized and zeta potential of 168 nm and -10.37mV, respectively. XRD spectra and transmission electron microscopy tests confirmed the plant botanical encapsulation in the NPs. Following 60 days of storage at 40 ± 2°C/75 ± 5% RH, the optimised formula remained relatively stable. As compared to extract gel, nano-gel showed a much-improved ex vivo permeability profile and considerable drug deposition in the viable epidermal-dermal layers. When developed nano-gel was applied topically to a rat model of psoriasis, it demonstrated distinct in vivo anti-psoriatic efficacy in terms of drug activity and reduction of epidermal thickness in comparison to other formulations and the control. ELISA and histopathologic studies also demonstrated that nano-organogel had improved skin integrity and downregulated inflammatory markers (IL-17, IL-6, IFN-γ and MCP-1).

CONCLUSION

Findings suggest that a developed plant botanicals-based nanogel has a potential for the treatment of psoriasis-like dermatitis with better skin retention and effectiveness.

Revolutionizing Brain Drug Delivery: Buccal Transferosomes on the Verge of a Breakthrough

The buccal cavity, also known as the oral cavity, is a complex anatomical structure that plays a crucial role in various physiological processes. It serves as a gateway to the digestive system and facilitates the initial stages of food digestion and absorption. However, its significance extends beyond mere digestion as it presents a promising route for drug delivery, particularly to the brain. Transferosomes are lipid-based vesicles that have gained significant attention in the field of drug delivery due to their unique structure and properties. These vesicles are composed of phospholipids that form bilayer structures capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs. Strategies for the development of buccal transferosomes for brain delivery have emerged as promising avenues for pharmaceutical research. This review aims to explore the various approaches and challenges associated with harnessing the potential of buccal transferosomes as a means of enhancing drug delivery to the brain. By understanding the structure and function of both buccal tissue and transferosomes, researchers can develop effective formulation methods and characterization techniques to optimize drug delivery. Furthermore, strategic approaches and success stories in buccal transferosome development are highlighted, showcasing inspiring examples that demonstrate their potential to revolutionize brain delivery.

Recent Advances in Nanocarrier-based Approaches to Atopic Dermatitis and Emerging Trends in Drug Development and Design

Atopic dermatitis (AD), commonly known as Eczema, is a non-communicable skin condition that tends to become chronic. The deteriorating immunological abnormalities are marked by mild to severe erythema, severe itching, and recurrent eczematous lesions. Different pharmacological approaches are used to treat AD. The problem with commercial topical preparations lies in the limitation of skin atrophy, systemic side effects, and burning sensation that decreases patient compliance. The carrier-based system promises to eliminate these shortcomings; thus, a novel approach to treating AD is required. Liposomes, microemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), nanoemulsions, etc., have been developed recently to address this ailment. Despite extensive research in the development method and various techniques, it has been challenging to demonstrate the commercial feasibility of these carrier- based systems, which illustrates a gap among the different research areas. Further, different soft wares and other tools have proliferated among biochemists as part of a cooperative approach to drug discovery. It is crucial in designing, developing, and analyzing processes in the pharmaceutical industry and is widely used to reduce costs, accelerate the development of biologically innovative active ingredients, and shorten the development time. This review sheds light on the compilation of extensive efforts to combat this disease, the product development processes, commercial products along with patents in this regard, numerous options for each step of computer-aided drug design, including in silico pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and toxicity screening or predictions that are important in finding the drug-like compounds.

Thyme Oil-Containing Fluconazole-Loaded Transferosomal Bigel for Transdermal Delivery

The objective of the present research was to develop fluconazole-loaded transferosomal bigels for transdermal delivery by employing statistical optimization (23 factorial design-based). Thin-film hydration was employed to prepare fluconazole-loaded transferomal suspensions, which were then incorporated into bigel system. A 23 factorial design was employed where ratios of lipids to edge activators, lipids (soya lecithin to cholesterol), and edge activators (sodium deoxycholate to Tween 80) were factors. Ex vivo permeation flux (Jss) of transferosomal bigels across porcine skin was analyzed as response. The optimal setting for optimized formulation (FO) was A= 4.96, B= 3.82, and C= 2.16. The optimized transferosomes showed 52.38 ± 1.76% DEE, 76.37 nm vesicle size, 0.233 PDI, - 20.3 mV zeta potential, and desirable deformability. TEM of optimized transferosomes exhibited a multilamelar structure. FO bigel's FE-SEM revealed a globule-shaped vesicular structure. Further, the optimized transferosomal suspension was incorporated into thyme oil (0.1% w/w)-containing bigel (TO-FO). Ex vivo transdermal fluconazole permeation from different transferosomal bigels was sustained over 24 h. The highest permeation flux (4.101 μg/cm2/h) was estimated for TO-FO bigel. TO-FO bigel presented 1.67-fold more increments of antifungal activity against Candida albicans than FO bigel. The prepared thyme oil (0.1% w/w)-containing transfersomal bigel formulations can be used as topical delivery system to treat candida related fungal infections.

Current Advances in Lipid Nanosystems Intended for Topical and Transdermal Drug Delivery Applications

Skin delivery is an exciting and challenging field. It is a promising approach for effective drug delivery due to its ease of administration, ease of handling, high flexibility, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, adaptability, and many other advantages. The main associated challenge, however, is low skin permeability. The skin is a healthy barrier that serves as the body's primary defence mechanism against foreign particles. New advances in skin delivery (both topical and transdermal) depend on overcoming the challenges associated with drug molecule permeation and skin irritation. These limitations can be overcome by employing new approaches such as lipid nanosystems. Due to their advantages (such as easy scaling, low cost, and remarkable stability) these systems have attracted interest from the scientific community. However, for a successful formulation, several factors including particle size, surface charge, components, etc. have to be understood and controlled. This review provided a brief overview of the structure of the skin as well as the different pathways of nanoparticle penetration. In addition, the main factors influencing the penetration of nanoparticles have been highlighted. Applications of lipid nanosystems for dermal and transdermal delivery, as well as regulatory aspects, were critically discussed.

Herbal Fennel Essential Oil Nanogel: Formulation, Characterization and Antibacterial Activity against Staphylococcus aureus

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the greatest threats to humanity in the world. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria spread easily in communities and hospitals. Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is a serious human infectious agent with threatening broad-spectrum resistance to many commonly used antibiotics. To prevent the spread of pathogenic microorganisms, alternative strategies based on nature have been developed. Essential oils (EOs) are derived from numerous plant parts and have been described as antibacterial agents against S. aureus. Fennel essential oils were selected as antibacterial agents encapsulated in nanoparticles of polylactic acid and glycolic acid (PLGA). The optimum size of the formulation after loading with the active ingredient was 123.19 ± 6.1595 nm with a zeta potential of 0.051 ± 0.002 (23 ± 1.15 mV). The results of the encapsulation efficiency analysis showed high encapsulation of EOs, i.e., 66.4 ± 3.127. To obtain promising carrier materials for the delivery of fennel EOs, they were incorporated in the form of nanogels. The newly developed fennel oils in PLGANPs nanogels have good drug release and MIC against S. aureus. These results indicate the potential of this novel delivery system for antimicrobial therapy.

Conformationally restricted, dipeptide-based, self-assembled nanoparticles for efficient vancomycin delivery

Aim: Emergence of vancomycin (Van) resistance, and usage of its higher dose and short half-life are posing a serious concern. Slow and sustained release of Van using a nanodelivery system may overcome these problems. Materials & methods: Arginine-α,β-dehydrophenylalanine (RΔF) was synthesized using solution-phase synthesis which self-assembled into nanospheres. Van was entrapped in the nanoparticles (NPs). In vitro and in vivo efficacy of Van-RΔF was determined using broth microdilution and the mouse thigh infection model, respectively. Results & conclusion: Van-RΔF NPs efficiently inhibited bacterial growth (Staphylococcus aureus), while Van alone showed limited growth inhibition in in vitro. Intravenous administration of Van-RΔF in mice with bacterial thigh infection showed enhanced efficacy (double) compared with Van alone, which indicates its high potential for further development.

Overcoming skin barriers through advanced transdermal drug delivery approaches

Upon exhaustive research, the transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS) has appeared as a potential, well-accepted, and popular approach to a novel drug delivery system. Ease of administration, easy handling, minimum systemic exposure, least discomfort, broad flexibility and tunability, controlled release, prolonged therapeutic effect, and many more perks make it a promising approach for effective drug delivery. Although, the primary challenge associated is poor skin permeability. Skin is an intact barrier that serves as a primary defense mechanism to preclude any foreign particle's entry into the body. Owing to the unique anatomical framework, i.e., compact packing of stratum corneum with tight junction and fast anti-inflammatory responses, etc., emerged as a critical physiological barrier for TDDS. Fusion with other novel approaches like nanocarriers, specially designed transdermal delivery devices, permeation enhancers, etc., can overcome the limitations. Utilizing such strategies, some of the products are under clinical trials, and many are under investigation. This review explores all dimensions that overcome poor permeability and allows the drug to attain maximum potential. The article initially compiles fundamental features, components, and design of TDDS, followed by critical aspects and various methods, including in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo methods of assessing skin permeability. The work primarily aimed to highlight the recent advancement in novel strategies for effective transdermal drug delivery utilizing active methods like iontophoresis, electroporation, sonophoresis, microneedle, needleless jet injection, etc., and passive methods such as the use of liposomes, SLN, NLC, micro/nanoemulsions, dendrimers, transferosomes, and many more nanocarriers. In all, this compilation will provide a recent insight on the novel updates along with basic concepts, the current status of clinical development, and challenges for the clinical translation of TDDS.

Box-Behnken Design: Optimization of Proanthocyanidin-Loaded Transferosomes as an Effective Therapeutic Approach for Osteoarthritis

Transferosomes are one of the vesicular carriers that have received extensive research and attention recently because of their capacity to get beyond the barriers posed by the stratum corneum to penetration. The intent of the current study is to optimize and evaluate proanthocyanidin (PAC) containing transferosomal transdermal gels. PAC-containing transferosomes were prepared using the film hydration method and then loaded into a 4% methylcellulose gel. A 2³ Box-Behnken design was used to optimize the PAC-loaded transferosomal gel, where the effects of phospholipid 90 G (X1), Tween 80 (X2), and sonication time (X3) were evaluated. The formulation factors, such as the drug entrapment efficiency percentage (PEE) and in vitro drug release, were characterized. A PEE of 78.29 ± 1.43% and a drug release in vitro at 6 h of 24.2 ± 1.25% were obtained. The optimized transferosomal-loaded proanthocyanidin (OTP) formulation penetrated the porcine skin at an excellent rate (0.123 ± 0.0067 mg/cm²/h). Stability tests were conducted for OTP to predict the effects of various temperature conditions on the physical appearance, drug content, and PEE for periods of 15, 30, and 45 days. Finally, this transferosomal system for transdermal PAC delivery may be a suitable alternative to the conventional treatment for osteoarthritis.

Preparation, Characterization and Permeation Study of Topical Gel Loaded with Transfersomes Containing Asiatic Acid

The objective of this study is to investigate the in vitro permeation of asiatic acid (AA) in the form of a topical gel after entrapment in transfersomes by Franz diffusion cells. Transfersomes composed of soybean lecithin and three different edge activators including Tween 80 (TW80), Span 80 (SP80) and sodium deoxycholate (SDC) at the ratio of 50:50, 90:10 and 90:10, respectively, together with 0.3% w/w of AA, were prepared by a high-pressure homogenization technique and further incorporated in gels (TW80AATG, SP80AATG and SDCAATG). All transfersomal gels were characterized for their AA contents, dynamic viscosity, pH and homogeneity. Results revealed that the AA content, dynamic viscosity and pH of the prepared transfersomal gels ranged from 0.272 ± 0.006 to 0.280 ± 0.005% w/w, 812.21 ± 20.22 to 1222.76 ± 131.99 Pa.s and 5.94 ± 0.03 to 7.53 ± 0.03, respectively. TW80AATG gave the highest percentage of AA penetration and flux into the Strat-M^® membrane at 8 h (8.53 ± 1.42% and 0.024 ± 0.008 mg/cm²/h, respectively) compared to SP80AATG (8.00 ± 1.70% and 0.019 ± 0.010 mg/cm²/h, respectively), SDCAATG (4.80 ± 0.50% and 0.014 ± 0.004 mg/cm²/h, respectively), non-transfersomal gels (0.73 ± 0.44 to 3.13 ± 0.46% and 0.002 ± 0.001 to 0.010 ± 0.002 mg/cm²/h, respectively) and hydroethanolic AA solution in gel (1.18 ± 0.76% and 0.004 ± 0.003 mg/cm²/h, respectively). These findings indicate that the TW80AATG might serve as a lead formulation for further development toward scar prevention and many types of skin disorders.