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Larionova E, Garakh Z. Spelling principles matter: An ERP study investigating the processing of different types of pseudohomophones. Brain Res 2024; 1839:149012. [PMID: 38772521 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2024.149012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Spelling in any writing system is governed by fundamental principles. We examined the processing of two types of pseudohomophones constructed from words whose spellings are based on different principles - on the traditional principle of writing, requiring memorization of their spelling, and on the morphological principle, allowing the determination of their spelling from another word with the same morpheme (root) to examine the dependence of the occurrence of orthography-phonology conflict on spelling principles. Event-related potentials were recorded from 22 volunteers during silent reading. Pseudohomophones based on the morphological principle increased the N400 amplitude, emphasizing semantic and morphological processing importance. The P600 component showed significant effects for differentiating words and pseudohomophones based on the traditional principle, predominantly indicating the involvement of memory and reanalysis processes. Source reconstruction demonstrates that both pseudohomophones activate the left inferior frontal gyrus. However, pseudohomophones based on the traditional principle additionally activate the right and left postcentral gyrus, indicating the involvement of additional areas in the differentiation process. The earlier differences for stimuli based on the morphological principle indicate access to smaller units (morphemes), whereas stimuli based on the traditional principle require whole word processing. Our findings underscore the significant role of spelling principles in orthographic processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Larionova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Zhanna Garakh
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
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2
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Larionova E, Rebreikina A, Martynova O. Electrophysiological signatures of spelling sensitivity development from primary school age to adulthood. Sci Rep 2024; 14:7585. [PMID: 38555413 PMCID: PMC10981698 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-58219-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Recognizing spelling errors is important for correct writing and reading, and develops over an extended period. The neural bases of the development of orthographic sensitivity remain poorly understood. We investigated event-related potentials (ERPs) associated with spelling error recognition when performing the orthographic decision task with correctly spelled and misspelled words in children aged 8-10 years old, early adolescents aged 11-14 years old, and adults. Spelling processing in adults included an early stage associated with the initial recognition of conflict between orthography and phonology (reflected in the N400 time window) and a later stage (reflected in the P600 time window) related to re-checking the spelling. In children 8-10 years old, there were no differences in ERPs to correct and misspelled words; in addition, their behavioral scores were worse than those of early adolescents, implying that the ability to quickly recognize the correct spelling is just beginning to develop at this age. In early adolescents, spelling recognition was reflected only at the later stage, corresponding to the P600 component. At the behavioral level, they were worse than adults at recognizing misspelled words. Our data suggest that orthographic sensitivity can develop beyond 14 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Larionova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation.
| | - Anna Rebreikina
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Olga Martynova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russian Federation
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russian Federation
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3
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Basma B, Savage R, Bertone A. The N400 in readers with dyslexia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Psychophysiol 2024; 196:112283. [PMID: 38128616 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2023.112283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to assess whether (i) significant differences exist in the N400 response to lexico-semantic tasks between typically developing (TD) readers and readers with dyslexia, and (ii) whether these differences are moderated by the modality of task presentation (visual vs. auditory), the type of task, age, or opaque orthography (shallow and transparent alphabets vs Chinese morpho-syllabary). Twenty studies were included in the meta-analysis, and the analysis did not demonstrate strong evidence of publication bias. An overall effect size of Hedge's g = 0.66, p < .001, was found between typically developing readers and readers with dyslexia. All moderators were found to be significant; larger effects were associated with visual modality (g = 0.692, p < .001), semantically incongruent sentence tasks (g = 0.948, p < .001), pseudowords/characters tasks (g = 0.971, p < .001), and orthography [Chinese (g = 1.015, p < .001) vs. alphabets (g = 0.539, p < .001)]. Analysis of reaction time showed Hedge's g = 1.613, p < .001. Results suggest that the N400 reliably differentiated between typically developing readers and readers with dyslexia. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Badriah Basma
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Robert Savage
- Department of Education, York University, Toronto, Canada.
| | - Armando Bertone
- Department of Educational and Counselling Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Sun H, Shi Q, Pazoki S, Jia Y, Woltering S. Neurophysiological Correlates of Reading Difficulties in Elementary School Children. Dev Neuropsychol 2023; 48:259-279. [PMID: 37357939 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2023.2225664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
The present study examined the event-related potentials (ERPs) and reading-language skills of elementary school children with and without reading difficulties. Typically developing children showed an N400 effect characterized by significantly larger N400 amplitudes elicited by nonwords than real words. Their meaning processing shown by the N400 systematically differed by lexicality. On the other hand, the N400 effect was absent in children with reading difficultiesExploratory analyses were conducted with the N1 and Late Positive Component. Additionally, the relationships between ERPs and reading-language skills were examined; sight word efficiency and phonemic decoding efficiency accounted for significant variance in the N400 effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huilin Sun
- Department of Psychology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Qinxin Shi
- Department of Psychology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Saeedeh Pazoki
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Yajun Jia
- School of Social Work, Columbia University, New York City, NY, USA
| | - Steven Woltering
- Department of Educational Psychology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
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Larionova E, Garakh Z, Martynova O. Top-down modulation of brain responses in spelling error recognition. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 235:103891. [PMID: 36933384 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The task being undertaken can influence orthographic, phonological and semantic processes. In linguistic research, two tasks are most often used: a task requiring a decision in relation to the presented word and a passive reading task which does not require a decision regarding the presented word. The results of studies using these different tasks are not always consistent. This study aimed to explore brain responses associated with the process of recognition of spelling errors, as well as the influence of the task on this process. Event-related potentials (ERPs) were recorded in 40 adults during an orthographic decision task to determine correctly spelled words and words written with errors that did not change the phonology and during the passive reading. During spelling recognition, the early stages up to 100 ms after the stimulus were automatic and did not depend on the requirements of the task. The amplitude of the N1 component (90-160 ms) was greater in the orthographic decision task, but did not depend on the correct spelling of the word. Late word recognition after 350-500 ms was task dependent, but spelling effects were similar across the two tasks: misspelled words evoked an increase in the amplitude of the N400 component related to lexical and semantic processing regardless of the task. In addition, the orthographic decision task modulated spelling effects, this was reflected in an increase in the amplitude of the P2 component (180-260 ms) for correctly spelled words compared with misspelled words. Thus, our results show that spelling recognition involves general lexico-semantic processes independent of the task. Simultaneously, the orthographic decision task modulates the spelling-specific processes necessary to quickly detect conflicts between orthographic and phonological representations of words in memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Larionova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia.
| | - Zhanna Garakh
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia
| | - Olga Martynova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova 5a, Moscow 117485, Russia; Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Krivokolenny per. 3, Moscow 101000, Russia.
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Amora KK, Tretow A, Verwimp C, Tijms J, Leppänen PHT, Csépe V. Typical and Atypical Development of Visual Expertise for Print as Indexed by the Visual Word N1 (N170w): A Systematic Review. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:898800. [PMID: 35844207 PMCID: PMC9279737 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.898800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The visual word N1 (N170w) is an early brain ERP component that has been found to be a neurophysiological marker for print expertise, which is a prelexical requirement associated with reading development. To date, no other review has assimilated existing research on reading difficulties and atypical development of processes reflected in the N170w response. Hence, this systematic review synthesized results and evaluated neurophysiological and experimental procedures across different studies about visual print expertise in reading development. Literature databases were examined for relevant studies from 1995 to 2020 investigating the N170w response in individuals with or without reading disorders. To capture the development of the N170w related to reading, results were compared between three different age groups: pre-literate children, school-aged children, and young adults. The majority of available N170w studies (N = 69) investigated adults (n = 31) followed by children (school-aged: n = 21; pre-literate: n = 4) and adolescents (n = 1) while some studies investigated a combination of these age groups (n = 12). Most studies were conducted with German-speaking populations (n = 17), followed by English (n = 15) and Chinese (n = 14) speaking participants. The N170w was primarily investigated using a combination of words, pseudowords, and symbols (n = 20) and mostly used repetition-detection (n = 16) or lexical-decision tasks (n = 16). Different studies posed huge variability in selecting electrode sites for analysis; however, most focused on P7, P8, and O1 sites of the international 10–20 system. Most of the studies in adults have found a more negative N170w in controls than poor readers, whereas in children, the results have been mixed. In typical readers, N170w ranged from having a bilateral distribution to a left-hemispheric dominance throughout development, whereas in young, poor readers, the response was mainly right-lateralized and then remained in a bilateral distribution. Moreover, the N170w latency has varied according to age group, with adults having an earlier onset yet with shorter latency than school-aged and pre-literate children. This systematic review provides a comprehensive picture of the development of print expertise as indexed by the N170w across age groups and reading abilities and discusses theoretical and methodological differences and challenges in the field, aiming to guide future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen Kay Amora
- Brain Imaging Centre, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Faculty of Modern Philology and Social Sciences, Multilingualism Doctoral School, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
- *Correspondence: Kathleen Kay Amora ;
| | - Ariane Tretow
- Department of Psychology, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Cara Verwimp
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Rudolf Berlin Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Jurgen Tijms
- Department of Developmental Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Rudolf Berlin Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Valéria Csépe
- Brain Imaging Centre, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
- Institute for Hungarian and Applied Linguistics, University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
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Interhemispheric transfer time differs between fast and slow healthy adult readers. Neuropsychologia 2022; 169:108205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Dębska A, Banfi C, Chyl K, Dzięgiel-Fivet G, Kacprzak A, Łuniewska M, Plewko J, Grabowska A, Landerl K, Jednoróg K. Neural patterns of word processing differ in children with dyslexia and isolated spelling deficit. Brain Struct Funct 2021; 226:1467-1478. [PMID: 33761000 PMCID: PMC8096730 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-021-02255-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There is an ongoing debate concerning the extent to which deficits in reading and spelling share cognitive components and whether they rely, in a similar fashion, on sublexical and lexical pathways of word processing. The present study investigates whether the neural substrates of word processing differ in children with various patterns of reading and spelling deficits. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging, we compared written and auditory processing in three groups of 9-13-year olds (N = 104): (1) with age-adequate reading and spelling skills; (2) with reading and spelling deficits (i.e., dyslexia); (3) with isolated spelling deficits but without reading deficits. In visual word processing, both deficit groups showed hypoactivations in the posterior superior temporal cortex compared to typical readers and spellers. Only children with dyslexia exhibited hypoactivations in the ventral occipito-temporal cortex compared to the two groups of typical readers. This is the result of an atypical pattern of higher activity in the occipito-temporal cortex for non-linguistic visual stimuli than for words, indicating lower selectivity. The print-speech convergence was reduced in the two deficit groups. Impairments in lexico-orthographic regions in a reading-based task were associated primarily with reading deficits, whereas alterations in the sublexical word processing route could be considered common for both reading and spelling deficits. These findings highlight the partly distinct alterations of the language network related to reading and spelling deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Dębska
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Chiara Banfi
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Katarzyna Chyl
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Gabriela Dzięgiel-Fivet
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Kacprzak
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- Faculty of Psychology, Warsaw University, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Magdalena Łuniewska
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Plewko
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Grabowska
- Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Karin Landerl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
- BioTechMed-Graz, Graz, Austria
- Department of Cognitive Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katarzyna Jednoróg
- Laboratory of Language Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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Coch D. Uncoupled Brain and Behavior Changes in Lexical, Phonological, and Memory Processing in Struggling Readers. Dev Neuropsychol 2021; 46:33-53. [PMID: 33423559 DOI: 10.1080/87565641.2020.1871481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Paired behavioral and ERP measures were used to track change over time in 17 third- and fourth-grade struggling readers. Word and nonword reading on standardized tests improved, but differentiation of words and letter strings, measured by N170 and N400 amplitude, did not significantly change. Sound awareness scores improved, but the ERP rhyming effect did not significantly change. Both digit span scores and latency of the P300 oddball effect decreased. Correlations between the ostensibly matched behavioral and electrophysiological measures of change were not significant, indicating that use of ERP and behavioral measures can provide nonoverlapping insight into change during reading development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donna Coch
- Department of Education, Dartmouth College , Hanover, NH, USA
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Mehlhase H, Bakos S, Bartling J, Schulte-Körne G, Moll K. Word processing deficits in children with isolated and combined reading and spelling deficits: An ERP-study. Brain Res 2020; 1738:146811. [PMID: 32234513 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Dissociations between reading and spelling deficits are likely to be associated with distinct deficits in orthographic word processing. To specify differences in automatic visual word recognition, the current ERP-study compared children with isolated reading fluency deficits (iRD), isolated spelling deficits (iSD), and combined reading fluency and spelling deficits (cRSD) as well as typically developing (TD) 10-year-olds while performing a variant of the Reicher-Wheeler paradigm: children had to indicate which of two letters occurred at a given position in a previously presented word, legal pseudoword, illegal pseudoword or nonword. Event-related potentials (N200 and N400) associated with sublexical orthographic and lexical orthographic processing as well as phonological word processing were analyzed. All groups showed a word superiority effect, both on the behavioral and the neurophysiological level. Group differences occurred for phonological word processing. TD and iRD groups showed a higher N400 activation for illegal pseudowords than for nonwords, while the two spelling deficit groups showed no activation differences between these two stimuli conditions. The findings suggest that differences in phonological word processing are associated with spelling problems: children with iSD showed reduced sensitivity for phonological word processing, while these deficits were not evident in children with iRD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heike Mehlhase
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Nußbaumstr. 5a, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Sarolta Bakos
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Nußbaumstr. 5a, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Jürgen Bartling
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Nußbaumstr. 5a, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Gerd Schulte-Körne
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Nußbaumstr. 5a, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Kristina Moll
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Nußbaumstr. 5a, 80336 Munich, Germany
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Abstract
Reading is a complex, multifactorial, and dynamic skill. Most of what we currently know about neural correlates underlying reading comes from studies carried out with adults. However, considering that adults are skilled readers, findings from these studies cannot be generalized to children who are still learning to read. The advancement of neuroimaging techniques allowed researchers to investigate the developmental fingerprints and neurocircuitry involved in reading in children. To highlight the contribution of neuroimaging in understanding reading development, we look at both reading components, namely, word identification and reading comprehension. This chapter covers the three literacy periods-emergent, early, and conventional literacy-to better understand how reading acquisition affects neural networks. Further, we discuss our findings in light of different cognitive reading models. Although it is important to consider both spatial and temporal measurements to provide a holistic account of reading-related brain activity, the current chapter focuses on the functional activation and connectivity of reading-related areas in typically developing children.
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Kemény F, Gangl M, Banfi C, Bakos S, Perchtold CM, Papousek I, Moll K, Landerl K. Deficient Letter-Speech Sound Integration Is Associated With Deficits in Reading but Not Spelling. Front Hum Neurosci 2018; 12:449. [PMID: 30487742 PMCID: PMC6246711 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Efficient and automatic integration of letters and speech sounds is assumed to enable fluent word recognition and may in turn also underlie the build-up of high-quality orthographic representations, which are relevant for accurate spelling. While previous research showed that developmental dyslexia is associated with deficient letter-speech sound integration, these studies did not differentiate between subcomponents of literacy skills. In order to investigate whether deficient letter-speech sound integration is associated with deficits in reading and/or spelling, three groups of third graders were recruited: (1) children with combined deficits in reading and spelling (RSD, N = 10); (2) children with isolated spelling deficit (ISD, N = 17); and (3) typically developing children (TD, N = 21). We assessed the neural correlates (EEG) of letter-speech sound integration using a Stroop-like interference paradigm: participants had to decide whether two visually presented letters look identical. In case of non-identical letter pairs, conflict items were the same letter in lower and upper case (e.g., “T t”), while non-conflict items were different letters (e.g., “T k”). In terms of behavioral results, each of the three groups exhibited a comparable amount of conflict-related reaction time (RT) increase, which may be a sign for no general inhibitory deficits. Event-related potentials (ERPs), on the other hand, revealed group-based differences: the amplitudes of the centro-parietal conflict slow potential (cSP) were increased for conflicting items in typical readers as well as the ISD group. Preliminary results suggest that this effect was missing for children with RSD. The results suggest that deficits in automatized letter-speech sound associations are associated with reading deficit, but no impairment was observed in spelling deficit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ferenc Kemény
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Melanie Gangl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Chiara Banfi
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Sarolta Bakos
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Ilona Papousek
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Kristina Moll
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Psychosomatics, and Psychotherapy, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany
| | - Karin Landerl
- Institute of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
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