Associations between touchscreen exposure and hot and cool inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants

Rates of family history of autism and ADHD varies with recruitment approach and socio-economic status

Family history (FH) of autism and ADHD is not often considered during the recruitment process of developmental studies, despite high recurrence rates. We looked at the rate of autism or ADHD amongst family members of young children (9 to 46 months) in three UK-based samples (N = 1055) recruited using different methods. The rate of FH-autism or FH-ADHD was 3%-9% for diagnosed cases. The rate was highest in the sample recruited through an online participant pool, which also consisted of the most socio-economically diverse families. Lower parental education and family income were associated with higher rates of FH-ADHD and lower parental education with increased FH-autism. Thus, recruitment strategies have a meaningful impact on neurodiversity and the conclusions and generalizations that can be drawn. Specifically, recruitment using crowdsourcing websites could create a sample that is more representative of the wider population, compared to those recruited through university-related volunteer databases and social media.

Conceptualizing avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder via an executive functioning lens

Avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID) is a heterogeneous disorder wherein restrictive eating is primarily attributed to non-shape/weight-based reasons (e.g., sensory sensitivity) that empirical research continues to explore. Mounting evidence suggests that ARFID often presents alongside neurodevelopmental diagnoses (NDs) or divergent neurodevelopment broadly. Executive functioning (EF) differences often characterize divergent neurodevelopmental trajectories. Additionally, restrictive eating in anorexia nervosa has been conceptualized as related to EF factors (e.g., set shifting). Given the neurodevelopmental phenotype that may be associated with ARFID and the role of EF in anorexia nervosa, this paper proposes EF as a potentially important, yet understudied factor in ARFID pathology. We posit that various observed ARFID behavioral/cognitive tendencies can be conceptualized in relation to EF differences. We contextualize commonly observed ARFID presentations within "core" EF components (i.e., cognitive flexibility, working memory, inhibitory control), leading to hypotheses about EF in ARFID. Finally, we offer additional considerations/directions for future research on EF in ARFID. Increased research on EF in ARFID is needed to consider this potential common factor in the etiology and maintenance of this heterogeneous disorder. We aim to promote further consideration of EF in ARFID etiology, maintenance, and treatment-outcome research. PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE: This article proposes that aspects of executive functioning (EF) may play a role in the onset and maintenance of avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), although this notion is largely untested by existing research. Further research on the role of EF in ARFID may assist with refining models and treatments for this heterogeneous disorder.

Differential effects of mindfulness meditation and cognitive training on cool and hot inhibitory control in children and adolescents

Inhibitory control (IC) can occur either in a neutral context (cool) or in social contexts involving emotions (hot). Cool and hot IC have specific developmental trajectories; cool IC develops linearly from childhood to adulthood, whereas hot IC follows a quadratic trajectory. Some activities can improve the IC, such as cognitive training (CT) and mindfulness meditation (MM). The aim of our study was to compare the effects of 5 weeks of computerized MM versus CT on IC performance in 66 children (9-10 years old) and 63 adolescents (16-17 years old) by specifically analyzing cool and hot dimensions in the same participants and from a developmental perspective. We fit a linear mixed-effect model on the Stroop interference score with time (pretest vs. posttest) and type of conflict (cool vs. hot) as within-participant factors and intervention group (CT vs. MM) and age group (child vs. adolescent) as between-participant factors. The findings revealed that children but not adolescents benefitted from interventions. More specifically, CT improved cool IC but not hot IC, whereas MM practice improved hot IC but not cool IC. This study supports the benefits of MM at a young age. Theoretical issues linking MM programs to emotional competence grounded in hot IC skills are considered in academic settings.

Universality and context-specificity in early executive function development

A renewed interest in early executive function (i.e., EF or the conscious control of thought and behavior) development has led several research groups to suggest that EF may be emerging and is less coordinated (e.g., showing few relations between tasks) in the first few years (Devine et al., 2019; Gago Galvagno et al., 2021; Johansson et al., 2016; Miller & Marcovitch, 2015; Ribner et al., 2022). This potentially universal development in EF does not exclude the possibility that EF may also differ across context (e.g., Gago Galvagno et al., 2021; Lohndorf et al., 2019; Tran et al., 2015) reflecting unique strengths and development built within one's sociocultural environment. The present paper explores potential universal and context-specific early EF developments by focusing on three aims: (1) reviewing work on EF within the first two years of life that may speak to potential universality in the measurement, structure, growth, stability, and conceptualization of early EF (2) reviewing research that may speak to how the sociocultural context may play a role in context-specific development within early EF and (3) examining potential developmental EF frameworks for understanding universal and context-specific developments of early EF within context.

Associations between Symptom Severity of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Screen Time among Toddlers Aged 16 to 36 Months

There is growing evidence that prevalence rates of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are increasing. A number of factors appear to contribute to this increase, including excessive screen time. Screen time seems to be linked to the severity of the symptoms of ASD. Given this, the aim of the present cross-sectional study was to investigate the association between early screen time and ASD symptoms severity in the first 36 months of life. To this end, sixty-eight Iranian toddlers (mean age: 27.09 months; 22.1% females) with ASD were recruited. Parents completed the modified checklist for autism in toddlers (M-CHAT), the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R), and a lifestyle checklist. Next, parents rated children’s daily exposure to content specifically designed (foreground media) and not specifically designed (background media) for children, along with their daily exposure to social interaction. Per day, toddlers spent 5.12 h (±3.77) with foreground media, 3.72 h (±3.57) with background media, and 2.89 h (±2.74) in interaction with other people (parents). To test the hypotheses, we performed a series of Pearson’s correlations and multiple regression analyses. Toddlers’ higher severity scores for ASD symptoms were associated with longer foreground (r = 0.234, p = 0.001) and longer background (r = 0.180, p = 0.012) media duration, and with shorter duration of interaction with others (r = 0.192, p = 0.009). Toddlers spending 1 h more in foreground screen time and background screen time have 0.38 and 0.29 more units in the ASD symptom severity scale, respectively, while toddlers spending 1 h more in social interactions have 0.42 fewer units in the ASD symptom severity scale. The screen time and interaction duration are related to ASD symptoms severity of toddlers. The cross-sectional study design precludes causal associations, although bi-directional relationships appear plausible.

Screen technology exposure and infant cognitive development: A scoping review

PROBLEM

There has been some concern that screen exposure is harmful to an infant's cognitive development, but the effects of screen technologies on cognition are not fully understood. A scoping review was conducted to determine what evidence exists about screen exposure and cognitive development in children ages birth to 24 months.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Inclusion = 1) English language; 2) studies focusing on children under 24 months of age; 3) cognitive development; 4) screen exposure. Exclusion = 1) articles over 25 years old; 2) structure, function and physiology of the brain; 3) social development; 4) psychosocial development; 5) motor development; 6) abnormal development/mental health; 7) behavior; 8) content only, not screen exposure e.g., social media; 9) secondary sources.

SAMPLE

Ten studies met the inclusion criteria. Articles included one retrospective chart review, six longitudinal studies, two cross-sectional studies, and one prospective study.

RESULTS

Of the ten studies in this review, six reported correlations between screen exposure and cognitive delay, one study reported positive cognitive outcomes and three reported no significant positive or negative outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

From the evidence in this scoping review, no causal relationship has been found between screen exposure and infant cognitive harm. Some correlations between screen exposure and cognitive delay were reported. Some positive cognitive outcomes were also reported.

IMPLICATIONS

Future research should focus on the context of screen viewing as opposed to dosage or exposure. More robust methodologies should be used to assess infant cognition and screen usage.

The neural correlates of inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants: A functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Inhibitory control, a core executive function, emerges in infancy and develops rapidly across childhood. Methodological limitations have meant that studies investigating the neural correlates underlying inhibitory control in infancy are rare. Employing functional near-infrared spectroscopy alongside a novel touchscreen task that measures response inhibition, this study aimed to uncover the neural underpinnings of inhibitory control in 10-month-old infants (N = 135). We found that when inhibition was required, the right prefrontal and parietal cortices were more activated than when there was no inhibitory demand. This demonstrates that inhibitory control in infants as young as 10 months of age is supported by similar brain areas as in older children and adults. With this study we have lowered the age-boundary for localising the neural substrates of response inhibition to the first year of life.

Not all babies are in the same boat: Exploring the effects of socioeconomic status, parental attitudes, and activities during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic on early Executive Functions

Early executive functions (EFs) lay the foundations for academic and social outcomes. In this parent‐report study of 575 UK‐based 8‐ to 36 month olds (218 followed longitudinally), we investigate how variation in the home environment before and during the 2020 pandemic relates to infants’ emerging EFs. Parent‐infant enriching activities were positively associated with infant Cognitive Executive Function (CEF) (encompassing inhibitory control, working memory, cognitive flexibility). During the most‐restrictive UK lockdown—but not subsequently—socioeconomic status (SES) was positively associated with levels of parent‐infant enriching activities. Parents who regard fostering early learning, affection, and attachment as important were more likely to engage in parent‐infant enriching activities, yet there was no significant pathway from parental attitudes or SES to CEF via activities. Infant screen use was negatively associated with CEF and Regulation. Screen use fully mediated the effect of SES on CEF, and partially mediated the effect of SES on regulation. Parental attitudes toward early learning, affection, and attachment did not significantly influence screen use. These results indicate that although parental attitudes influence the development of early EFs, interventions targeting attitudes as a means of increasing enriching activities, and thus EF are likely to be less effective than reducing barriers to engaging in enriching activities.