Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) use during massive blood transfusion in trauma resuscitation

Markers of Futile Resuscitation in Traumatic Hemorrhage: A Review of the Evidence and a Proposal for Futility Time-Outs during Massive Transfusion

The reduction in the blood supply following the 2019 coronavirus pandemic has been exacerbated by the increased use of balanced resuscitation with blood components including whole blood in urban trauma centers. This reduction of the blood supply has diminished the ability of blood banks to maintain a constant supply to meet the demands associated with periodic surges of urban trauma resuscitation. This scarcity has highlighted the need for increased vigilance through blood product stewardship, particularly among severely bleeding trauma patients (SBTPs). This stewardship can be enhanced by the identification of reliable clinical and laboratory parameters which accurately indicate when massive transfusion is futile. Consequently, there has been a recent attempt to develop scoring systems in the prehospital and emergency department settings which include clinical, laboratory, and physiologic parameters and blood products per hour transfused as predictors of futile resuscitation. Defining futility in SBTPs, however, remains unclear, and there is only nascent literature which defines those criteria which reliably predict futility in SBTPs. The purpose of this review is to provide a focused examination of the literature in order to define reliable parameters of futility in SBTPs. The knowledge of these reliable parameters of futility may help define a foundation for drawing conclusions which will provide a clear roadmap for traumatologists when confronted with SBTPs who are candidates for the declaration of futility. Therefore, we systematically reviewed the literature regarding the definition of futile resuscitation for patients with trauma-induced hemorrhagic shock, and we propose a concise roadmap for clinicians to help them use well-defined clinical, laboratory, and viscoelastic parameters which can define futility.

Do not forget the platelets: The independent impact of red blood cell to platelet ratio on mortality in massively transfused trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Balanced blood component administration during massive transfusion is standard of care. Most literature focuses on the impact of red blood cell (RBC)/fresh frozen plasma (FFP) ratio, while the value of balanced RBC:platelet (PLT) administration is less established. The aim of this study was to evaluate and quantify the independent impact of RBC:PLT on 24-hour mortality in trauma patients receiving massive transfusion.

METHODS

Using the 2013 to 2018 American College of Surgeons Trauma Quality Improvement Program database, adult patients who received massive transfusion (≥10 U of RBC/24 hours) and ≥1 U of RBC, FFP, and PLT within 4 hours of arrival were retrospectively included. To mitigate survival bias, only patients with consistent RBC:PLT and RBC:FFP ratios between 4 and 24 hours were analyzed. Balanced FFP or PLT transfusions were defined as having RBC:PLT and RBC:FFP of ≤2, respectively. Multivariable logistic regression was used to compare the independent relationship between RBC:FFP, RBC:PLT, balanced transfusion, and 24-hour mortality.

RESULTS

A total of 9,215 massive transfusion patients were included. The number of patients who received transfusion with RBC:PLT >2 (1,942 [21.1%]) was significantly higher than those with RBC:FFP >2 (1,160 [12.6%]) (p < 0.001). Compared with an RBC:PLT ratio of 1:1, a gradual and consistent risk increase was observed for 24-hour mortality as the RBC:PLT ratio increased (p < 0.001). Patients with both FFP and PLT balanced transfusion had the lowest adjusted risk for 24-hour mortality. Mortality increased as resuscitation became more unbalanced, with higher odds of death for unbalanced PLT (odds ratio, 2.48 [2.18-2.83]) than unbalanced FFP (odds ratio, 1.66 [1.37-1.98]), while patients who received both FFP and PLT unbalanced transfusion had the highest risk of 24-hour mortality (odds ratio, 3.41 [2.74-4.24]).

CONCLUSION

Trauma patients receiving massive transfusion significantly more often have unbalanced PLT rather than unbalanced FFP transfusion. The impact of unbalanced PLT transfusion on 24-hour mortality is independent and potentially more pronounced than unbalanced FFP transfusion, warranting serious system-level efforts for improvement.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic/Care Management; Level IV.

Staying on target: Maintaining a balanced resuscitation during damage-control resuscitation improves survival

BACKGROUND

Damage-control resuscitation (DCR) improves survival in severely bleeding patients. However, deviating from balanced transfusion ratios during a resuscitation may limit this benefit. We hypothesized that maintaining a balanced resuscitation during DCR is independently associated with improved survival.

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of the Prospective Observational Multicenter Major Trauma Transfusion (PROMMTT) study. Patients receiving >3 U of packed red blood cells (PRBCs) during any 1-hour period over the first 6 hours and surviving beyond 30 minutes were included. Linear regression assessed the effect of percent time in a high-ratio range on 24-hour survival. We identified an optimal ratio and percent of time above the target ratio threshold by Youden's index. We compared patients with a 6-hour ratio above the target and above the percent time threshold (on-target) with all others (off-target). Kaplan-Meier analysis assessed the combined effect of blood product ratio and percent time over the target ratio on 24-hour and 30-day survival. Multivariable logistic regression identified factors independently associated with 24-hour and 30-day survival.

RESULTS

Of 1,245 PROMMTT patients, 524 met the inclusion criteria. Optimal targets were plasma/PRBC and platelet/PRBC of 0.75 (3:4) and ≥40% time spent over this threshold. For plasma/PRBC, on-target (n = 213) versus off-target (n = 311) patients were younger (median, 31 years; interquartile range, [22-50] vs. 40 [25-54]; p = 0.002) with similar injury burdens and presenting physiology. Similar patterns were observed for platelet/PRBC on-target (n = 116) and off-target (n = 408) patients. After adjusting for differences, on-target plasma/PRBC patients had significantly improved 24-hour (odds ratio, 2.25; 95% confidence interval, 1.20-4.23) and 30-day (odds ratio, 1.97; 95% confidence interval, 1.14-3.41) survival, while on-target platelet/PRBC patients did not.

CONCLUSION

Maintaining a high ratio of plasma/PRBC during DCR is independently associated with improved survival. Performance improvement efforts and prospective studies should capture time spent in a high-ratio range.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Epidemiologic/prognostic study, level II; Therapeutic, level IV.

Anemia in Cardiac Surgery - Can Something Bad Get Worse?

INTRODUCTION

Anemia and blood transfusion are risk factors for morbidity/mortality in patients undergoing cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). The objective of this study is to analyze the association of blood transfusion with morbidity/ mortality in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) under CPB in the state of São Paulo, Brazil.

METHODS

This is a retrospective analysis using the State of São Paulo Registry of Cardiovascular Surgery from November 2013 to August 2014. Blood transfusion was only considered during surgery or within six hours after surgery. Anemia was defined as hematocrit ≤ 37.5%. Patients < 18 years old were excluded. The sample was divided in four groups - Group I (851, no anemia), Group II (200, anemia without blood transfusion), Group III (181, no anemia and transfusion), and Group IV (258, anemia and transfusion).

RESULTS

A total of 1,490 patients were included; 639 (42.9%) were anemic and 439 (29.5%) underwent blood transfusion. Group II showed lower composite morbidity (odds ratio [OR] -0.05; confidence interval [CI] -0.27-0.17; P=0.81) than Group III (OR 0.41; CI 0.23-0.59; P=0.018) or Group IV (OR 0.54; CI 0.31- 0.77; P=0.016). Group III was at greater risk of mortality (OR 0.73; CI 0.43-1.03; P=0.02) than Group II, which was exposed only to anemia (OR -0.13; CI -0.55-0.29; P=0.75), or Group IV (OR 0.29; CI -0.13-0.71; P=0.539).

CONCLUSION

Anemia in patients undergoing CABG with CPB is bad, but blood transfusion can be worse, increasing at least 50% the risk for mortality and/or morbidity.

Mortality in civilian trauma patients and massive blood transfusion treated with high vs low plasma: red blood cell ratio. Systematic review and meta-analysis

Introduction: Massive bleeding in civilian trauma patients leads to dilutional coagulopathy. Transfusion with high plasma: red blood cell (RBC) ratio has been effective in reducing mortality in war trauma patients. However, in civilian trauma the evidence is controversial. Objective: To assess the impact on mortality of high vs low plasma: RBC ratio transfusion, in civilian trauma patients with massive bleeding. Methods: A systematic review and meta-analysis, including observational studies and clinical trials, was conducted. Databases were systemically searched for relevant studies between January 2007 and June 2019. The main outcome was early (24-hours) and late (30-day) mortality. Fixed and random effects models were used. Results: Out of 1295 studies identified, 33 were selected: 2 clinical trials and 31 observational studies. The analysis of observational trials showed both decreased early mortality (odds ratio [OR] 0.67; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.60–0.75) and late mortality (OR 0.79; 95% CI, 0.71–0.87) with the use of high plasma:RBC ratio transfusion, but there were no differences when clinical trials were evaluated (OR 0.89; 95% CI, 0.64–1.26). The exclusion of patients who died within the first 24hours was a source of heterogeneity. The Injury Severity Score (ISS) altered the association between high plasma: RBC ratio and mortality, with a reduced protective effect when the ISS was high. Conclusion: The use of high vs low plasma: RBC ratio transfusion, in patients with massive bleeding due to civil trauma, has a protective effect on early and late mortality in observational studies. The exclusion of patients who died within the first 24 hours was a source of heterogeneity.

Damage Control Resuscitation Protocol and the Management of Open Abdomens in Trauma Patients

Although the use of damage control laparotomy (DCL) is well established, the effect of damage control resuscitation (DCR) on the management of open abdomens is relatively poorly studied. The aim of the present study was to determine the predictors for failure to achieve primary fascial closure (PFC) after DCL in the setting of a massive transfusion (MT) and DCR. This is a retrospective review over a 12-year period of all patients that underwent MT and DCL. Patients who achieved PFC were compared with those who did not (NPFC). Student's t tests were used to compare the two groups. A multiple logistic regression model was performed to identify independent risk factors for failure to attain PFC. Of 174 patients, 101 achieved PFC. Mean (6 standard deviation) age was 35.6 ± 14.9 years for PFC and 36.3 ± 14.0 years for NPFC ( P = 0.75). Admission Glasgow Coma Scale score was 11.4 ± 4.6 for PFC and 10.6 ± 5.0 for NPFC ( P = 0.25). Initial lactate (7.3 ± 3.8 vs 7.7 ± 4.1, P = 0.50), hemoglobin (11.3 ± 1.9 vs 11.0 ± 2.2, P = 0.43), systolic blood pressure (108 ± 44 vs 107 ± 35, P = 0.82), Injury Severity Score (34 ± 14 vs 36 ± 15, P = 0.32), and abdominal Abbreviated Injury Score (3.6 ± 1.1 vs 3.9 ± 1.0, P = 0.13) were similar between the two groups. There was no difference in total blood products administered at 24 hours (46 ± 26 vs 49 ± 29 units, P = 0.45). Logistic regression identified increasing volume of crystalloid at 24 hours (odds ratio, 0.86; 95% confidence interval, 0.74 to 0.99; P = 0.047), earlier operative year (2.1; 1.52 to 2.91; P < 0.001), and increased number of procedures (0.32, 0.18 to 0.58; P < 0.001) as independent predictors for failure to obtain PFC. Injury severity is not associated with failure to achieve PFC, whereas administration of large-volume crystalloid resuscitation, increasing number procedures, and earlier year of DCL are independent predictors for failure to achieve PFC. Application of DCR to DCL techniques results in an improvement in ability to achieve PFC.

Death by Decade: Establishing a Transfusion Ceiling for Futility in Massive Transfusion

BACKGROUND

Age and massive transfusion are predictors of mortality after trauma. We hypothesized that increasing age and high-volume transfusion would result in progressively elevated mortality rates and that a transfusion "ceiling" would define futility.

METHODS

The Trauma Quality Improvement Program (TQIP) database was queried for 2013-2016 records and our level I trauma registry was reviewed from 2013 to 2018. Demographic, mortality, and blood transfusion data were collected. Patients were grouped by decade of life and by packed red blood cell (pRBC) transfusion requirement (zero units, 1-3 units, or ≥4 units) within 4 h of admission.

RESULTS

TQIP analysis demonstrated an in-hospital mortality risk that increased linearly with age, to an odds ratio of 10.1 in ≥80 y old (P < 0.01). Mortality rates were significantly higher in older adults (P < 0.01) and those with more pRBCs transfused. In massively transfused patients, the transfusion "ceiling" was dependent on age. Owing to the lack granularity in the TQIP database, 230 patients from our institution who received ≥4 units of pRBCs within 4 h of admission were reviewed. On arrival, younger patients had significantly higher heart rates and more severe derangements in lactate levels, base deficits, and pH compared with older patients. There were no differences among age groups in injury severity score, systolic blood pressure, or mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In massively transfused patients, mortality increased with age. However, a significant proportion of older adults were successfully resuscitated. Therefore, age alone should not be considered a contraindication to high-volume transfusion. Traditional physiologic and laboratory criteria indicative of hemorrhagic shock may have reduced reliability with increasing age, and thus providers must have a heightened suspicion for hemorrhage in the elderly. Early transfusion requirements can be combined with age to establish prognosis to define futility to help counsel families regarding mortality after traumatic injury.

Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation in Transport Part 2: Complications and Troubleshooting

Factors taken for granted while the extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) patient is maintained in a hospital setting can become critical when planning for transport. These issues include but are not limited to positioning of patients on a small transport stretcher, positioning of cannulas and equipment, ensuring adequate power sources and supply, inefficient temperature control, and a much higher risk of decannulation. It is paramount to be comfortable with the management strategies required to handle common complications of ECMO with limited resources in a relatively austere environment. Coagulopathy and bleeding are the most common complications occurring in up to 50% of ECMO patients. Loss of flow and hypotension from loss of volume or profound vasodilation after ECMO initiation need to be managed accordingly. Oxygenator malfunction can occur, and clinicians must be able to recognize the indicators of this complication promptly. Loss of pulsatility, low end-tidal carbon dioxide (ETCO₂), and differential hypoxia are common complications in venoarterial ECMO. In addition, an air embolism is life-threatening on venoarterial ECMO but may be better tolerated in the setting of venovenous ECMO. Recirculation in venovenous ECMO leads to circulation of poorly oxygenated blood and must be recognized and addressed. Lastly, pump failure, circuit rupture, and decannulation are devastating complications. Over the last decade, the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) has accelerated rapidly,^1-3 providing support for patients in severe respiratory or cardiac failure. With ongoing clinical experience and improvements in technology, the indications for ECMO are increasing.⁴ Many areas are developing centralized ECMO centers to serve their surrounding communities.^5-7 To use a centralized ECMO referral model, patients need access to effective, safe critical care transport, but transporting a patient on ECMO carries a significant risk of adverse events.^8-13 The purpose of this review is to highlight some of the most common adverse events in ECMO transports and provide management suggestions. Note that these recommendations are not a substitution for close collaboration with medical control, and all adverse events should be promptly reported per organizational protocols.

Fresh Frozen Plasma-to-Packed Red Blood Cell Ratio and Mortality in Traumatic Hemorrhage: Nationwide Analysis of 4,427 Patients

BACKGROUND

Despite the presence of highly reliable data, studies on packed red blood cells (pRBC):fresh frozen plasma (FFP) ratio suffer from limited sample size and the presence of survivor bias. We sought to study the association between FFP:pRBC and early mortality in the hemorrhaging trauma patient.

STUDY DESIGN

This was a retrospective nationwide cohort that included all TQIP participating hospitals (2013 to 2016). We included all trauma patients who were transfused ≥10 pRBCs and ≥1 FFP within 24 hours. We excluded transferred patients and those who died in the emergency department or had missing/inaccurate transfusion data. Patients were assigned to 7 FFP:pRBC cohorts (range 1:1 to 1:6, and 1:6+) only if the ratio was similar at 4 and 24 hours and, to avoid survival bias, were excluded otherwise. Multivariable analyses correcting for all available confounders (age, demographics, comorbidities, vital signs, Injury Severity Score [ISS] and mechanism, procedures performed) were derived to study the independent relationship between FFP:pRBC and 24-hour mortality.

RESULTS

Of 1,002,595 patients, 4,427 patients were included. Mean age was 41 years, 79% were males, 61% had blunt trauma, and median ISS was 29. Most patients were transfused in a 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3 ratio (31%, 41%, and 11%, respectively); mortality ranged between 28% for 1:1 and 62% for 1:4. In multivariable analyses, the odds of mortality independently and incrementally increased to 1.23 (95% CI 1.02 to 1.48) for a 1:2 ratio, 2.11 (95% CI 1.42 to 3.13) for 1:4, and as high as 4.11 (95% CI 2.31 to 7.31) for 1:5 (all p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

A 1:1 FFP:pRBC ratio is associated with the lowest mortality in the hemorrhaging trauma patient, and mortality increases with decreasing ratios.

Does the evidence support the importance of high transfusion ratios of plasma and platelets to red blood cells in improving outcomes in severely injured patients: a systematic review and meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

Deaths by exsanguination in trauma are preventable with hemorrhage control and resuscitation with allogeneic blood products (ABPs). The ideal transfusion ratio is unknown. We compared efficacy and safety of high transfusion ratios of FFP:RBC and PLT:RBC with low ratios in trauma.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Medline, Embase, Cochrane, and Controlled Clinical Trials Register were searched. Observational and randomized data were included. Risk of bias was assessed using validated tools. Primary outcome was 24-h and 30-day mortality. Secondary outcomes were exposure to ABPs and improvement of coagulopathy. Meta-analysis was conducted using a random-effects model. Strength and evidence quality were graded using GRADE profile RESULTS: 55 studies were included (2 randomized and 53 observational), with low and moderate risk of bias, respectively, and overall low evidence quality. The two RCTs showed no mortality difference (odds ratio [OR], 1.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.40-4.59). Observational studies reported lower mortality in high FFP:RBCs ratio (OR, 0.38 [95% CI, 0.22-0.68] for 1:1 vs. <1:1; OR, 0.42 [95% CI, 0.22-0.81] for 1:1.5 vs. <1:1.5; and OR, 0.47 [95% CI, 0.31-0.71] for 1:2 vs. <1:2, respectively). Meta-analyses in observational studies showed no difference in exposure to ABPs. No data on coagulopathy for meta-analysis was identified.

CONCLUSIONS

Meta-analyses in observational studies suggest survival benefit and no difference in exposure to ABPs. No survival benefit in RCTs was identified. These conflicting results should be interpreted with caution. Studies are mostly observational, with relatively small sample sizes, nonrandom treatment allocation, and high potential for confounding. Further research is warranted.

Dysregulation of the actin scavenging system and inhibition of DNase activity following severe thermal injury

Background

Circulating cell‐free DNA (cfDNA) is not found in healthy subjects, but is readily detected after thermal injury and may contribute to the risk of multiple organ failure. The hypothesis was that a postburn reduction in DNase protein/enzyme activity could contribute to the increase in cfDNA following thermal injury.

Methods

Patients with severe burns covering at least 15 per cent of total body surface area were recruited to a prospective cohort study within 24 h of injury. Blood samples were collected from the day of injury for 12 months.

Results

Analysis of blood samples from 64 patients revealed a significant reduction in DNase activity on days 1–28 after injury, compared with healthy controls. DNase protein levels were not affected, suggesting the presence of an enzyme inhibitor. Further analysis revealed that actin (an inhibitor of DNase) was present in serum samples from patients but not those from controls, and concentrations of the actin scavenging proteins gelsolin and vitamin D‐binding protein were significantly reduced after burn injury. In a pilot study of ten military patients with polytrauma, administration of blood products resulted in an increase in DNase activity and gelsolin levels.

Conclusion

The results of this study suggest a novel biological mechanism for the accumulation of cfDNA following thermal injury by which high levels of actin released by damaged tissue cause a reduction in DNase activity. Restoration of the actin scavenging system could therefore restore DNase activity, and reduce the risk of cfDNA‐induced host tissue damage and thrombosis.

A, R. K. Influence of unmanned aerial vehicle in medical product transport

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the special applications of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) for the transport of medical goods.

Design/methodology/approach

Experimental work has been carried out to predict the performance characteristics of UAVs.

Findings

The results have been obtained to predict the range and endurance of UAVs, which can be optimized based on the payload and source of power.

Originality/value

Real-time applications. As the medical products are necessary in the real time life saving events.

Perioperative management of the bleeding patient

Perioperative bleeding remains a major complication during and after surgery, resulting in increased morbidity and mortality. The principal causes of non-vascular sources of haemostatic perioperative bleeding are a preexisting undetected bleeding disorder, the nature of the operation itself, or acquired coagulation abnormalities secondary to haemorrhage, haemodilution, or haemostatic factor consumption. In the bleeding patient, standard therapeutic approaches include allogeneic blood product administration, concomitant pharmacologic agents, and increasing application of purified and recombinant haemostatic factors. Multiple haemostatic changes occur perioperatively after trauma and complex surgical procedures including cardiac surgery and liver transplantation. Novel strategies for both prophylaxis and therapy of perioperative bleeding include tranexamic acid, desmopressin, fibrinogen and prothrombin complex concentrates. Point-of-care patient testing using thromboelastography, rotational thromboelastometry, and platelet function assays has allowed for more detailed assessment of specific targeted therapy for haemostasis. Strategic multimodal management is needed to improve management, reduce allogeneic blood product administration, and minimize associated risks related to transfusion.

Prediction of massive bleeding in a prehospital setting: validation of six scoring systems

OBJECTIVE

To validate the diagnostic ability of six different scores to predict massive bleeding in a prehospital setting.

DESIGN

Retrospective cohort.

SETTING

Prehospital attention of patients with severe trauma.

SUBJECTS

Subjects with more than 15 years, a history of severe trauma (defined by code 15 criteria), that were initially assisted in a prehospital setting by the emergency services between January 2010 and December 2015 and were then transferred to a level one trauma center in Madrid.

VARIABLES

To validate: 1. Trauma Associated Severe Haemorrhage Score. 2. Assessment of Blood Consumption Score. 3. Emergency Transfusión Score. 4. Índice de Shock. 5. Prince of Wales Hospital/Rainer Score. 6. Larson Score.

RESULTS

548 subjects were studied, 76,8% (420) were male, median age was 38 (interquartile range [IQR]: 27-50). Injury Severity Score was 18 (IQR: 9-29). Blunt trauma represented 82,5% (452) of the cases. Overall, frequency of MB was 9,2% (48), median intensive care unit admission days was 2,1 (IQR: 0,8 - 6,2) and hospital mortality rate was 11,2% (59). Emergency Transfusión Score had the highest precisions (AUC 0,85), followed by Trauma Associated Severe Haemorrhage score and Prince of Wales Hospital/Rainer Score (AUC 0,82); Assessment of Blood Consumption Score was the less precise (AUC 0,68).

CONCLUSION

In the prehospital setting the application of any the six scoring systems predicts the presence of massive hemorrhage and allows the activation of massive transfusion protocols while the patient is transferred to a hospital.

Prehospital Blood Transfusions in Non-Trauma Patients

INTRODUCTION

Despite advances in trauma care, hemorrhage continues to be the leading cause of preventable mortality in trauma. The evidence to support its use in non-trauma patients is limited. We aim to report our experience with prehospital blood product transfusion. We hypothesize that it is safe, appropriately utilized, and that our protocol, which was designed for trauma patients, is adaptable to fit the needs of non-trauma patients.

METHODS

Patients transfused with blood products, packed red blood cells (pRBCs) or plasma, in the prehospital environment between 2002 and 2014 were included. Trauma patients were compared to non-trauma patients using descriptive statistics.

RESULTS

A total of 857 patients (n = 549 trauma and n = 308 non-trauma) were transfused with pRBCs (76 %, n = 654, mean 1.6 ± 1.1 units en route), plasma (53 %, n = 455, mean 1.7 ± 0.7 unit), or both (29 %, n = 252) during ground (12 %) or air (84 %) critical care transport. Mean age was 60.8 ± 21.6 years with 60.1 % (n = 515) males. Subsequently, in-hospital blood transfusions were performed in 80 % of patients, operations in 44 %, and endoscopy in 31 %. Five percent (n = 41) of patients did not require any of these interventions. Thirty-day mortality rate was 18 %, and one patient (<0.01 %) had a transfusion reaction. The majority of patients were non-trauma (n = 549, 64 %). Of the non-trauma patients, 219 (40 %) were surgical, 193 (35 %) gastrointestinal bleeds, and 137 (25 %) medical.

CONCLUSION

Both non-trauma and trauma patients require blood products for life threatening hemorrhage and the majority required further interventions. Further research on the benefits of transfusion among non-trauma patients is warranted.

Prehospital plasma resuscitation associated with improved neurologic outcomes after traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND

Trauma-related hypotension and coagulopathy worsen secondary brain injury in patients with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). Early damage control resuscitation with blood products may mitigate hypotension and coagulopathy. Preliminary data suggest resuscitation with plasma in large animals improves neurologic function after TBI; however, data in humans are lacking.

METHODS

We retrospectively identified all patients with multiple injuries age >15 years with head injuries undergoing prehospital resuscitation with blood products at a single Level I trauma center from January 2002 to December 2013. Inclusion criteria were prehospital resuscitation with either packed red blood cells (pRBCs) or thawed plasma as sole colloid resuscitation. Patients who died in hospital and those using anticoagulants were excluded. Primary outcomes were Glasgow Outcomes Score Extended (GOSE) and Disability Rating Score (DRS) at dismissal and during follow-up.

RESULTS

Of 76 patients meeting inclusion criteria, 53% (n = 40) received prehospital pRBCs and 47% (n = 36) received thawed plasma. Age, gender, injury severity or TBI severity, arrival laboratory values, and number of prehospital units were similar (all p > 0.05). Patients who received thawed plasma had an improved neurologic outcome compared to those receiving pRBCs (median GOSE 7 [7-8] vs. 5.5 [3-7], p < 0.001). Additionally, patients who received thawed plasma had improved functionality compared to pRBCs (median DRS 2 [1-3.5] vs. 9 [3-13], p < 0.001). Calculated GOSE and DRS scores during follow-up, median 6 [5-7] months, demonstrated increased function in those resuscitated with thawed plasma compared to pRBCs by both median GOSE (8 [7-8] vs. 6 [6-7], p < 0.001) and DRS (0 [0-1] vs. 4 [2-8], p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

In critically injured trauma patients with TBI, early resuscitation with thawed plasma is associated with improved neurologic and functional outcomes at discharge and during follow-up compared to pRBCs alone. These preliminary data support the further investigation and use of plasma in the resuscitation of critically injured TBI patients.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, level V.

Prehospital Transfusion for Gastrointestinal Bleeding

OBJECTIVE

Gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is a common medical emergency with significant morbidity and mortality. Many patients are coagulopathic, which may perpetuate bleeding. Remote damage control resuscitation, including early correction of coagulopathy and anemia, may benefit exsanguinating patients with GI bleeding.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective review of patients with acute GI bleeding who received packed red blood cells (pRBC) and/or plasma during transportation to our institution between 2010 and 2014. A comparison group of patients who were not transfused en route was selected, and demographics, outcomes, and response to resuscitation were compared.

RESULTS

A total of 112 patients with GI bleeding received pRBC (82%, n = 92 pRBC, mean 1.7 ± 0.9 units), plasma (62%, n = 69, mean 1.7 ± 0.8 units) or both (44%, n = 49) en-route. The comparison group comprised 49 patients transported by helicopter who were not transfused en-route. Demographics, crystalloid resuscitation, transfusion prior to transfer, rate of intervention, ICU days, length of stay, and mortality were similar between groups. Patients transfused en route had a significant increase in hemoglobin from 8.3 ± 2.2 to 8.9 ± 2.1 (P = .03) and decrease in INR from 2.0 ± 1.0 to 1.6 ± 1.4 (P = .01), whereas those not transfused en route experienced stable hemoglobin (8.7 ± 2.8 to 9.4 ± 2.5; P = .21) and INR values (1.9 ± 1.0 to 1.6 ± 1.4; P = .32). Both groups had a significant improvement in hemodynamic parameters with resuscitation.

CONCLUSION

Prehospital damage control resuscitation with pRBC and/or plasma resulted in the improvement of hemodynamic instability, coagulopathy and anemia in patients with acute GI bleeding. Almost all patients required additional inpatient interventions and/or transfusions, suggesting that pre-hospital transfusion is being utilized for appropriately selected patients.

Damage control resuscitation in patients with severe traumatic hemorrhage: A practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma

BACKGROUND

The resuscitation of severely injured bleeding patients has evolved into a multi-modal strategy termed damage control resuscitation (DCR). This guideline evaluates several aspects of DCR including the role of massive transfusion (MT) protocols, the optimal target ratio of plasma (PLAS) and platelets (PLT) to red blood cells (RBC) during DCR, and the role of recombinant activated factor VII (rVIIa) and tranexamic acid (TXA).

METHODS

Using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) methodology, a subcommittee of the Practice Management Guidelines (PMG) Section of EAST conducted a systematic review using MEDLINE and EMBASE. Articles in English from1985 through 2015 were considered in evaluating four PICO questions relevant to DCR.

RESULT

A total of 37 studies were identified for analysis, of which 31 met criteria for quantitative meta-analysis. In these studies, mortality decreased with use of an MT/DCR protocol vs. no protocol (OR 0.61, 95% CI 0.43-0.87, p = 0.006) and with a high ratio of PLAS:RBC and PLT:RBC (relatively more PLAS and PLT) vs. a low ratio (OR 0.60, 95% CI 0.46-0.77, p < 0.0001; OR 0.44, 95% CI 0.28-0.71, p = 0.0003). Mortality and blood product use were no different with either rVIIa vs. no rVIIa or with TXA vs. no TXA.

CONCLUSION

DCR can significantly improve outcomes in severely injured bleeding patients. After a review of the best available evidence, we recommend the use of a MT/DCR protocol in hospitals that manage such patients and recommend that the protocol target a high ratio of PLAS and PLT to RBC. This is best achieved by transfusing equal amounts of RBC, PLAS, and PLT during the early, empiric phase of resuscitation. We cannot recommend for or against the use of rVIIa based on the available evidence. Finally, we conditionally recommend the in-hospital use of TXA early in the management of severely injured bleeding patients.

NATO Blood Panel perspectives on changes to military prehospital resuscitation policies: current and future practice

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Blood Panel exists to promote interoperability of transfusion practice between NATO partners. However, it has served as an important forum for the development of prehospital transfusion and transfusion in the austere environment. There are synergies with the trauma hemostasis and oxygen research community especially in the areas of innovation and research. Four presentations are summarized together with a review of some scientific principles. The past decade has already seen significant changes in early transfusion support. Sometimes practice has preceded the evidence and has stretched regulatory and logistic constraints. Ethical and philosophical issues are also important and require us to question "should we" and not just "could we." The challenge for the combined communities is to continue to optimize transfusion support underpinned by evidence-based excellence.

Utilizing Group-based Trajectory Modeling to Understand Patterns of Hemorrhage and Resuscitation

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to describe variations in blood-based resuscitation in an injured cohort. We hypothesize that distinct transfusion trajectories are present.

BACKGROUND

Retrospective studies of hemorrhage utilize the concept of massive transfusion, where a set volume of blood is required. Patterns of hemorrhage vary and massive transfusion does little to describe these differences.

METHODS

Patients were prospectively included from June 2012 to 2013. Time of transfusion for each packed red blood cell (PRBC) transfused was recorded, in minutes, for all patients. Additional measures included demographic and injury data, admission laboratory values, and vital signs and outcomes including mortality, tempo of transfusion, and operative requirements. Group-based trajectory modeling was utilized to describe transfusion trajectories throughout the cohort.

RESULTS

Three hundred sixteen patients met the inclusion criteria. Among them, 72% were men and median age was 35 years (interquartile range [IQR] 24-50), median injury severity score was 13 (IQR 9-22), median 24-hour transfusion volume was 4 units of PRBCs (IQR 2-8), and mortality was 14%. Six transfusion trajectories were identified. Among the patients, 35% received negligible transfusions (group 1). Groups 2 and 3 received greater than 15 units PRBCs-the former as early resuscitation, whereas the latter intermittently throughout the day. Groups 4 and 5 had similar small resuscitations with distinct demographic differences. Group 6 suffered blunt injuries and required rapid resuscitation.

CONCLUSIONS

Traditional definitions of massive transfusion are broad and imprecise. In cohorts of severely injured patients, there are distinct, identifiable transfusion trajectories. Identification of subgroups is important in understanding clinical course and to anticipate resuscitative and therapeutic needs.

Optimal Fluid Therapy for Traumatic Hemorrhagic Shock

The resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock has undergone a paradigm shift in the last 20 years with the advent of damage control resuscitation (DCR). Major principles of DCR include minimization of crystalloid, permissive hypotension, transfusion of a balanced ratio of blood products, and goal-directed correction of coagulopathy. In particular, plasma has replaced crystalloid as the primary means for volume expansion for traumatic hemorrhagic shock. Predicting which patient will require DCR by prompt and accurate activation of a massive transfusion protocol, however, remains a challenge.

Association of Blood Component Ratio With Clinical Outcomes in Patients After Trauma and Massive Transfusion: A Systematic Review

Component ratios that mimic whole blood may produce survival benefit in patients massively transfused after trauma; other outcomes have not been reviewed. The purpose of this review was to systematically analyze studies where clinical outcomes were compared on the basis of the component ratios administered during massive transfusion in adult patients after trauma. PubMed, CINAHL, and MEDLINE (Ovid) were searched for studies published in English between 2007 and 2015, performed at Level I or major trauma centers. Twenty-one studies were included in the analysis. We used an adapted 9-item instrument to assess bias risk. The average bias score for the studies was 2.86 ± 1.39 out of 16, indicating a low bias risk. The most common bias sources were lack of data about primary outcomes and adverse events. Those who received high ratios experienced not only greater survival benefit but also higher rates of multiple-organ failure; all other clinical outcomes findings were equivocal.

Use of unmanned aerial vehicles for medical product transport

Advances in technology and decreasing costs have led to an increased use of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) by the military and civilian sectors. The use of UAVs in commerce is restricted by US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations, but the FAA is drafting new regulations that are expected to expand commercial applications. Currently, the transportation of medical goods in times of critical need is limited to wheeled motor vehicles and manned aircraft, options that can be costly and slow. This article explores the demand for, feasibility of, and risks associated with the use of UAVs to deliver medical products, including blood derivatives and pharmaceuticals, to hospitals, mass casualty scenes, and offshore vessels in times of critical demand.

Blood Component Therapy and Coagulopathy in Trauma: A Systematic Review of the Literature from the Trauma Update Group

Background

Traumatic coagulopathy is thought to increase mortality and its treatment to reduce preventable deaths. However, there is still uncertainty in this field, and available literature results may have been overestimated.

Methods

We searched the MEDLINE database using the PubMed platform. We formulated four queries investigating the prognostic weight of traumatic coagulopathy defined according to conventional laboratory testing, and the effectiveness in reducing mortality of three different treatments aimed at contrasting coagulopathy (high fresh frozen plasma/packed red blood cells ratios, fibrinogen, and tranexamic acid administration). Randomized controlled trials were selected along with observational studies that used a multivariable approach to adjust for confounding. Strict criteria were adopted for quality assessment based on a two-step approach. First, we rated quality of evidence according to the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) criteria. Then, this rating was downgraded if other three criteria were not met: high reporting quality according to shared standards, absence of internal methodological and statistical issues not detailed by the GRADE system, and absence of external validity issues.

Results

With few exceptions, the GRADE rating, reporting and methodological quality of observational studies was “very low”, with frequent external validity issues. The only two randomized trials retrieved were, instead, of high quality. Only weak evidence was found for a relation between coagulopathy and mortality. Very weak evidence was found supporting the use of fibrinogen administration to reduce mortality in trauma. On the other hand, we found high evidence that the use of 1:1 vs. 1:2 high fresh frozen plasma/packed red blood cells ratios failed to obtain a 12% mortality reduction. This does not exclude lower mortality rates, which have not been investigated. The use of tranexamic acid in trauma was supported by “high” quality evidence according to the GRADE classification but was downgraded to “moderate” for external validity issues.

Conclusions

Tranexamic acid is effective in reducing mortality in trauma. The other transfusion practices we investigated have been inadequately studied in the literature, as well as the independent association between mortality and coagulopathy measured with traditional laboratory testing. Overall, in this field of research literature quality is poor.

Implementation of a management protocol for massive bleeding reduces mortality in non-trauma patients: Results from a single centre audit

OBJECTIVE

To audit the impact upon mortality of a massive bleeding management protocol (MBP) implemented in our center since 2007.

DESIGN

A retrospective, single-center study was carried out. Patients transfused after MBP implementation (2007-2012, Group 2) were compared with a historical cohort (2005-2006, Group 1).

BACKGROUND

Massive bleeding is associated to high mortality rates. Available MBPs are designed for trauma patients, whereas specific recommendations in the medical/surgical settings are scarce.

PATIENTS

After excluding patients who died shortly (<6h) after MBP activation (n=20), a total of 304 were included in the data analysis (68% males, 87% surgical).

INTERVENTIONS

Our MBP featured goal-directed transfusion with early use of adjuvant hemostatic medications.

VARIABLES OF INTEREST

Primary endpoints were 24-h and 30-day mortality. Fresh frozen plasma-to-red blood cells (FFP:RBC) and platelet-to-RBC (PLT:RBC) transfusion ratios, time to first FFP unit and the proactive MBP triggering rate were secondary endpoints.

RESULTS

After MBP implementation (Group 2; n=222), RBC use remained stable, whereas FFP and hemostatic agents increased, when compared with Group 1 (n=82). Increased FFP:RBC ratio (p=0.053) and earlier administration of FFP (p=0.001) were also observed, especially with proactive MBP triggering. Group 2 patients presented lower rates of 24-h (0.5% vs. 7.3%; p=0.002) and 30-day mortality (15.9% vs. 30.2%; p=0.018) - the greatest reduction corresponding to non-surgical patients. Logistic regression showed an independent protective effect of MBP implementation upon 30-day mortality (OR=0.3; 95% CI 0.15-0.61).

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that the implementation of a goal-directed MBP for prompt and aggressive management of non-trauma, massive bleeding patients is associated to reduced 24-h and 30-day mortality rates.

Blood Transfusion Strategies for Hemostatic Resuscitation in Massive Trauma

Massive transfusion practices were transformed during the 1970s without solid evidence supporting the use of component therapy. A manual literature search was performed for all references to the lethal triad, acute or early coagulopathy of trauma, fresh whole blood, and component transfusion therapy in massive trauma, and damage control resuscitation. Data from recent wars suggest traditional component therapy causes a nonhemostatic resuscitation worsening the propagation of the lethal triad hastening death. These same studies also indicate the advantage of fresh whole blood over component therapy even when administered in a 1:1:1 replacement ratio.

Trauma-induced coagulopathy

Coagulopathy is the inability of blood to coagulate normally; in trauma patients, it is a multifactorial and complex process. Seriously injured trauma patients experience coagulopathies during the acute injury phase. Risk factors for trauma-induced coagulopathy include hypothermia, metabolic acidosis, hypoperfusion, hemodilution, and fluid replacement. In addition to the coagulopathy induced by trauma, many patients may also be taking medications that interfere with hemostasis. Therefore, medication-induced coagulopathy also is a concern. Traditional laboratory-based methods of assessing coagulation are being supported or even replaced by point-of-care tests. The evidence-based management of trauma-induced coagulopathy should address hypothermia, fluid resuscitation, blood components administration, and, if needed, medications to reverse identified coagulation disorders.

Trauma resuscitation requiring massive transfusion: a descriptive analysis of the role of ratio and time

Objective

We aimed to evaluate whether early administration of high plasma to red blood cells ratios influences outcomes in injured patients who received massive transfusion protocol (MTP).

Methods

A retrospective analysis was conducted at the only level 1 national trauma center in Qatar for all adult patients(≥18 years old) who received MTP (≥10 units) of packed red blood cell (PRBC) during the initial 24 h post traumatic injury. Data were analyzed with respect to FFB:PRBC ratio [(high ≥ 1:1.5) (HMTP) vs. (low < 1:1.5) (LMTP)] given at the first 4 h post-injury and also between (>4 and 24 h). Mortality, multiorgan failure (MOF) and infectious complications were studied as well.

Results

During the study period, a total of 4864 trauma patients were admitted to the hospital, 1.6 % (n = 77) of them met the inclusion criteria. Both groups were comparable with respect to initial pH, international normalized ratio, injury severity score, revised trauma score and development of infectious complications. However, HMTP was associated with lower crude mortality (41.9 vs. 78.3 %, p = 0.001) and lower rate of MOF (48.4 vs. 87.0 %, p = 0.001). The number of deaths was 3 times higher in LMTP in comparison to HMTP within the first 30 days (36 vs. 13 cases). The majority of deaths occurred within the first 24 h (80.5 % in LMTP and 69 % in HMTP) and particularly within the first 6 h (55 vs. 46 %).

Conclusions

Aggressive attainment of high FFP/PRBC ratios as early as 4 h post-injury can substantially improve outcomes in trauma patients.

A national common massive transfusion protocol (MTP) is a feasible and advantageous option for centralized blood services and hospitals

BACKGROUND

A common national MTP was jointly implemented in 2011 by the national blood service (Blood Services Group) and seven participating acute hospitals to provide rapid access to transfusion support for massively haemorrhaging patients treated in all acute care hospitals.

METHODS

Through a systematic clinical workflow, blood components are transfused in a ratio of 1:1:1 (pRBC: whole blood-derived platelets: FFP), together with cryoprecipitate for fibrinogen replacement. The composition of components for the MTP is fixed, although operational aspects of the MTP can be adapted by individual hospitals to suit local hospital workflow. The MTP could be activated in support of any patient with critical bleeding and at risk of massive transfusion, including trauma and non-trauma general medical, surgical and obstetric patients.

RESULTS

There were 434 activations of the MTP from October 2011 to October 2013. Thirty-nine per cent were for trauma patients, and 30% were for surgical patients with heavy intra-operative bleeding, with 25% and 6% for patients with gastrointestinal bleeding and peri-partum haemorrhage, respectively. Several hospitals reported reduction in mean time between request and arrival of blood. Mean transfusion ratio achieved was one red cell unit: 0·8 FFP units: 0·8 whole blood-derived platelet units: 0·4 units of cryoprecipitate. Although cryoprecipitate usage more than doubled after introduction of MTP, there was no significant rise in overall red cells, platelet and FFP usage following implementation.

CONCLUSION

This successful collaboration shows that shared transfusion protocols are feasible and potentially advantageous for hospitals sharing a central blood provider.

Implementation and execution of military forward resuscitation programs

Through necessity, military medicine has been the driver of medical innovation throughout history. The battlefield presents challenges, such as the requirement to provide care while under threat, resource limitation, and prolonged evacuation times, which must be overcome to improve casualty survival. Focus must also be placed on identifying the causes, and timing, of death within the battlefield. By doing so, military medical doctrine can be shaped, appropriate goals set, new concepts adopted, and relevant technologies investigated and implemented. The majority of battlefield casualties still die in the prehospital environment, before reaching a medical treatment facility, and hemorrhage remains the leading cause of potentially survivable death. Many countries have adopted policies that push damage control resuscitation forward into the prehospital setting, while understanding the need for timely medical evacuation. Although these policies vary according to country, the majority share many common principles. These include the need for early catastrophic hemorrhage control at point-of-wounding, judicious use of fluid resuscitation, use of blood products as far forward as possible, and early evacuation to a surgical facility. Some countries place medical providers with the ability, and resources, for advanced resuscitation with the forward fighting units (perhaps at company level), whereas others have established en route resuscitation capabilities. If we are to continue to improve battlefield casualty survival, we must continue to work together and learn from each other. We must also carry on working alongside our civilian colleagues so that the benefits of translational experience are not lost. This review describes several countries current military approaches to prehospital trauma care. These approaches, refined through a decade of experience, merit consideration for integration into civilian prehospital care practice.

Effectiveness of massive transfusion protocols on mortality in trauma: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

The effectiveness of massive transfusion protocols (MTPs) has been assumed from low quality studies with multiple biases. This review aimed to (i) evaluate the association between the institution of an MTP and mortality and (ii) determine the effect of MTPs on transfusion practice post trauma.

METHODS

A systematic review of studies that examined patient outcomes before and after the institution of an MTP in the same centre was conducted. The design and results of each study were described. Heterogeneity was assessed using the Q test and the I(2) statistic. Odds ratios (ORs) for dichotomous outcomes from each study were pooled.

RESULTS

There were eight studies that satisfied inclusion criteria with marked heterogeneity in study populations (I(2) = 72.1%, P = 0.001). Two studies showed significantly improved mortality following implementation of an MTP, and six studies showed no significant change. Pooled OR for the effect of an MTP on short-term mortality was 0.73 (95% confidence interval: 0.48-1.11). The effect of MTPs on transfusion practice was varied.

CONCLUSION

Despite the popularity of MTPs and directives mandating their use in trauma centres, in before-after studies, MTPs have not always been associated with improved mortality. Evidence-based standardization of MTPs, improved compliance and analysis of broader endpoints were identified as areas for further research.

Meta-analysis of plasma to red blood cell ratios and mortality in massive blood transfusions for trauma

BACKGROUND

The current military paradigm for blood transfusion in major trauma favours high plasma:RBC ratios. This study aimed determine whether high plasma:red blood cell (RBC) ratios during massive transfusion for trauma decrease mortality, using meta-analysis of contemporaneous groups matched for injury severity score.

METHODS

A systemic review of the published literature for massive blood transfusions in trauma was performed. Patients were categorised into groups based on plasma:RBC transfusion ratios. Meta-analysis was only performed when there were no significant differences in Injury Severity Score (ISS) between ratio groups within studies. The main endpoint was 30-day mortality.

RESULTS

Six observational studies reporting outcomes for 1885 patients were included in this meta-analysis. Five studies were from civilian environments and one from a military setting. Ratio cut-offs at 1:2 were the most commonly reported, demonstrating a survival advantage with higher ratios (OR 0.49, 95% CI 0.31-0.80, p=0.004). Ratios≥1:2 showed a significant reduction in mortality compared to lower ratios (OR 0.56, 95% CI 0.40-0.78, p<0.001). Reducing the cut-off level was still protective (ratios between 1:2.5 and 1:4, OR 0.41), although the confidence interval was wide (0.16-1.00, p=0.05) and data heterogenous (I(2)=78%). Ratios of 1:1 were not proven to confer additional benefit beyond ratios of 1:2 (OR 0.50, 95% CI 0.37-0.68, p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

In groups matched for ISS, there was a survival benefit with high plasma:RBC resuscitation ratios. No additional benefits of 1:1 over 1:2 ratios were identified.

The impact of blood product ratios in massively transfused pediatric trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Few studies have examined the impact of balanced resuscitation in pediatric trauma patients requiring massive transfusions. Adult data may not be generalizable to children.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis assessed patients seen at a level I trauma center between 2003 and 2010 aged ≤18 years requiring massive packed red blood cell (PRBC) transfusion, defined as transfusion of ≥50% total blood volume. After excluding mortalities in the first 24 hours, the impact of plasma and platelet ratios on mortality was evaluated.

RESULTS

Of 6,675 pediatric trauma patients, 105 were massively transfused (mean age, 12.4 ± 6.3 years; mean Injury Severity Score, 25.8 ± 11.4; mortality rate, 18.1%). All deceased patients sustained severe head injuries. Plasma/PRBC and platelet/PRBC ratios were not significantly associated with mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, higher plasma/PRBC and platelet/PRBC ratios were not associated with increased survival in children. The value of aggressive blood product transfusion for injured pediatric patients requires further prospective validation.

Modelling for conflict: the legacy of ballistic research and current extremity in vivo modelling

Extremity ballistic injury is unique and the literature intended to guide its management is commonly misinterpreted. In order to care for those injured in conflict and conduct appropriate research, clinicians must be able to identify key in vivo studies, understand their weaknesses and desist the propagation of miscited and misunderstood ballistic dogma. This review provides the only inclusive critical overview of key studies of relevance to military extremity injury. In addition, the non-ballistic studies of limb injury, stabilisation and contamination that will form the basis from which future small animal extremity studies are constructed are presented. With an awareness of the legacy of military wound models and an insight into available generic models of extremity injury and contamination, research teams are well placed to optimise future military extremity injury management.

Treatment of Acute Coagulopathy Associated with Trauma

Coagulopathy is frequently present in trauma. It is indicative of the severity of trauma and contributes to increased morbidity and mortality. Uncontrolled bleeding is the most frequent preventable cause of death in trauma patients reaching hospital alive. Coagulopathy in trauma has been long thought to develop as a result of hemodilution, acidosis, and hypothermia often related to resuscitation practices. However, altered coagulation tests are already present in 25–30% of severe trauma patients upon hospital arrival before resuscitation efforts. Acute coagulopathy associated with trauma (ACoT) has been recognized in recent years as a distinct entity associated with increased mortality, morbidity, and transfusion requirements. Transfusion and nontransfusion strategies aimed at correcting ACoT, particularly in patients with massive bleeding and massive transfusion, are currently available. Early administration of tranexamic acid to bleeding trauma patients safely reduces the risk of death. It has been proposed that early aggressive blood product transfusional management of ACoT with a red blood cell : plasma : platelets ratio close to 1 : 1 : 1 could result in decreased mortality from uncontrolled bleeding.

Efficacy of a high FFP:PRBC transfusion ratio on the survival of severely injured patients: a retrospective study in a single tertiary emergency center in Japan

PURPOSE

Recent studies have shown increased survival benefits when a high fresh frozen plasma (FFP) to packed red blood cell (PRBC) ratio is used during trauma resuscitation. However, some reports have raised questions about the effect of higher FFP:PRBC transfusion ratios. The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of high FFP:PRBC ratios in injured patients with regard to survival and morbidity in a single tertiary emergency center in Japan.

METHODS

This study examined severe trauma patients who received 10 or more PRBC units during the first 24 h of admission. We examined the relationship between the FFP:PRBC ratios during the first 6 h and the patient outcome.

RESULTS

The severity was similar among all groups. The mortality rate was 44.4% in the high (>1:1.5), 16.7% in the middle (1:1.5-1:2) and 33.3% in the low (<1:2) F:P ratio groups. Only one patient in the high group developed sepsis, and none of the patients developed ARDS.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results indicate that the FFP:PRBC ratios during the first 6 h after admission might not affect the mortality or morbidity. However, differences between trauma care systems in Japan and other countries, along with other study limitations, necessitate that a subsequent prospective multicenter study be undertaken before any definitive conclusions can be made.

Frozen blood products: clinically effective and potentially ideal for remote Australia

The development of effective cryopreservation techniques for both red blood cells and platelets, which maintain ex vivo biological activity, in combination with frozen plasma, provides for a unique blood banking strategy. This technology greatly enhances the storage life of these products. The rationale and potential advantages of using cryopreservation techniques for the provision of blood products to remote and military environments have been effectively demonstrated in several conflicts over the last decade. Current haemostatic resuscitation doctrine for the exsanguinating patient supports the use of red blood cells, platelets and frozen plasma early in the resuscitation. We believe an integrated fresh-frozen blood bank inventory could facilitate provision of blood products, not only in the military setting but also in regional Australia, by overcoming many logistic and geographical challenges. The processes involved in production and point of care thawing are sufficiently well developed and achievable to make this technology a viable option. The potential limitations of cryopreservation and subsequent product thawing need to be considered if such a strategy is to be developed. A substantial body of international experience using cryopreserved products in remote settings has already been accrued. This experience provides a template for the possible creation of an Australian integrated fresh-frozen blood bank inventory that could conceivably enhance the care of patients in both regional Australia and in the military setting.