Stress fractures of the foot and ankle

MRI of Pediatric Foot and Ankle Conditions

The increase in competitive sports practice among children and lack of ionizing radiation have resulted in a higher demand for MRI examinations. MRI of the children skeleton has some particularities that can lead orthopedists, pediatricians, and radiologists to diagnostic errors. The foot and ankle have several bones with abundant radiolucent and high signal intensity cartilage in several ossification centers, apophysis and physis, that can make this interpretation even harder. The present revision aims to show, how to differentiate between normal developmental findings and anatomic variants from pathologic conditions, whether mechanical, inflammatory, infectious, or neoplastic.

High risk and low incidence diseases: Lisfranc injury

INTRODUCTION

Lisfranc injuries are uncommon but frequently misdiagnosed and carry a high rate of morbidity.

OBJECTIVE

This review highlights the pearls and pitfalls of Lisfranc injuries, including presentation, diagnosis, and management in the emergency department (ED) based on current evidence.

DISCUSSION

Lisfranc injuries are caused by high- or low-energy trauma to the tarsometatarsal (TMT) joint complex. The severity of injury exists on a spectrum, ranging from minor subluxations to fractures and dislocations involving the TMT joint complex. They can be complicated by compartment syndrome, neurovascular compromise, and open fractures. Prompt diagnosis is critical in preventing chronic pain and mobility challenges, as even small subluxations can result in significant morbidity. Lisfranc injuries should be considered in all patients with a foot injury. Patients with Lisfranc injuries most commonly present with midfoot pain, swelling, or ecchymosis. Despite the importance of a timely diagnosis, Lisfranc injuries are commonly missed on plain radiographs due to their often subtle findings. When x-rays are negative but there is significant clinical suspicion, emergency clinicians should obtain advanced imaging such as computed tomography to aid in diagnosis. All Lisfranc injuries should be discussed with orthopedic surgery to determine definitive management. Patients who can be discharged should be made non-weightbearing and placed in a short-leg splint.

CONCLUSION

The consideration of Lisfranc injuries can help emergency clinicians make a timely diagnosis to prevent future complications.

Long term follow up on treatment of hallux sesamoid fracture with temporary first metatarsal joint internal fixation

Fracture of the hallucial sesamoids is a pathology that causes difficulty for surgeons and patients. Because of the low incidence and the fact that up to 64-90 % heal with non-operative management, there is a lack of clear guidance in the literature for the surgical treatment of sesamoid fracture in cases of failure of non-operative management. Here long term follow up of an alternative method of surgical treatment of sesamoid fracture recalcitrant to nonoperative management is presented. 32 individuals were treated with temporary surgical immobilisation of the 1st metatarsophalangeal joint using either crossed wires or two orthogonally placed two hole plates. The patients then underwent removal of the construct at 8 weeks post op after confirmation of healing on a CT scan. There was a 94 % union rate. Return to work was 61 days (15-90) return to sport 80 days (64-112) with no immediate complications and no recurrence. At last follow up mean 10 years (4-16) only 2 patients had gone on to asymptomatic non-union and one patient developed arthritis between the sesamoid and the metatarsal head. No patient has required further surgical intervention. This retrospective cohort of patients demonstrate that this method of treatment is a valuable option in the management of sesamoid fracture which does not alter the biomechanics of the foot and has none of the long term complications of sesamoidectomy or partial sesamoidectomy.

Multiple stress fractures: A case report and discussion

Stress fracture is the result of bone destruction with prolonged and repetitive loading. It usually occurs among various groups, including athletes, military recruits, and others. Early stress fractures often undergo undiagnosed or misdiagnosed because of atypical symptoms and effective medical examination. Here, we report a rare clinical case about the multiple stress fractures in one adolescent. Expect for the pathological biopsy, it hardly gets confirm diagnosis. With the increasing population of sports lover, healthcare institutions should be enhanced their understanding of stress fractures and enable effective management at an early stage.

Risk factors of metatarsal stress fracture associated with repetitive sports activities: a systematic review

Background

Metatarsal stress fracture is common in people engaged in repetitive weight-bearing activities, especially athletes and recruits. Identifying risk factors in these contexts is crucial for effective prevention.

Methods

A systematic search on Web of Science, PubMed, EBSCO, SPORTDiscus, MEDLINE, and Cochrane Library was conducted and the date range for the retrieval was set from January 1984 to April 2024.

Results

32 eligible studies were selected from 1,728 related research. Anatomical and biomechanical factors, such as higher foot arch, abnormal inversion/eversion of foot, and longer metatarsal length or larger angles, relatively influence stress fracture risk. However, given that there is no standardized measurement, the results remain to be examined. Soccer is associated with fifth metatarsal fractures, while long-distance running and recruit training often lead to fractures of the second or third metatarsals. High exercise intensity, non-adaptive training, and inadequate equipment heighten fracture risk.

Conclusion

This review highlights the complex interplay of anatomical, biomechanical, and sports-related factors in the risk of metatarsal stress fractures. Relatively, high arches, specific metatarsal morphologies, and foot inversion/eversion patterns are significant risk factors, particularly among athletes. Sports type also correlates with metatarsal stress fracture locations. Despite extensive research, study heterogeneity and inherent biases necessitate cautious interpretation. Comprehensive, multifactorial approaches and personalized injury prevention strategies are essential for reducing the incidence of these injuries and improving the health and performance of athletes.

Clinical Features and Therapeutic Process of Sacral Fatigue Fractures in Adolescents

BACKGROUND

Sacral fatigue fractures are a rare injury but should be considered as a differential diagnosis for low back and buttock pain in young adults. Collective reports are limited, most of which have focused on long-distance runners.

PURPOSE

To investigate the characteristics of sacral fatigue fractures in adolescents.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

We analyzed patient background characteristics, physical examination and imaging findings, and treatment courses of those diagnosed with sacral fatigue fractures using magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

Among 34 patients with sacral fatigue fractures, 15 and 19 were male and female patients, respectively, with an age range of 11 to 19 years (mean age, 15.0 years). Almost all patients were athletes, and 29 patients performed their sport ≥5 times a week. Long-distance runners were the most commonly affected, comprising 7 patients, and participants in other common sports such as baseball (6 patients), basketball (4 patients), and soccer (3 patients) were also affected. Physical examination revealed tension sign (Lasègue test) on the affected side in 6 patients and tight hamstrings in 24 patients. Imaging findings included 18 patients with right-side involvement, 12 with left-side involvement, and 4 with involvement on both sides. In 11 patients, spina bifida occulta was observed at S1 and 8 patients had a history of lumbar spondylolysis with 4 patients having concurrent sacral fatigue fractures. Physical therapy was performed concurrently with the cessation of exercise, and return to exercise was permitted if the pain had been relieved after 1 month. All patients returned to sports at a median of 48 days (range, 20-226 days) after symptom onset. However, 2 patients experienced recurrence (1 patient on the ipsilateral side and 1 patient on the contralateral side).

CONCLUSION

Sacral stress fractures are not limited to long-distance runners in this population and can manifest as lower back pain or buttock pain in athletes participating in a variety of sports. Although the course of treatment was generally good, the possibility of recurrence must always be considered.

Most elite athletes return to preinjury competitive activity after surgical treatment for medial malleolus stress fractures

PURPOSE

To provide return-to-performance outcomes after surgical treatment for medial malleolus stress fractures in the elite athlete. Additionally, to describe an individualised surgical approach in the management of medial malleolus stress fractures.

METHODS

Five athletes (six ankles) underwent surgical treatment for a medial malleolus stress fracture. The surgical technique was based on the extent of the fracture line in steps with first arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs, microfracturing of the fracture line and screw fixation. Return-to-performance data included time to return to sport-specific training, normal training, first competitive activity, performance and the return-to-performance rate.

RESULTS

Patients returned to sport-specific training at a median of 10 weeks. They started normal training at 16 weeks postoperatively and returned to their first competitive activity after 19 weeks. All patients had bony spurs on the distal tibia which were arthroscopically debrided. One patient received arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs alone. Four patients received additional microfracturing of the fracture line and three patients received screw fixation. All patients achieved clinical and radiographic union on follow-up computed tomography scan at 3 months postsurgery. At latest follow-up, no refractures nor hardware complications, nor any other complications were observed.

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic debridement of bony spurs, debridement and microfracturing of the fracture line and screw fixation are all viable surgical tools in the management of medial malleolus stress fractures in elite athletes. The surgical approach containing these options should be tailored to the individual athlete based on the fracture line in the sagittal plane. While most athletes return to full competitive activity in 3-4 months, time to self-reported return to full performance is often much longer.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV.

Stress fractures of the foot - current evidence on management

Stress fractures are a consequence of repeated submaximal loads with inadequate time for recovery and biologic repair or remodelling. The foot and ankle complex (FAC) represents a common site for development of stress fractures. Whilst the overall incidence of stress fractures is low, they are prevalent in athletes and military personnel causing significant time away from sports or work. Within these populations, certain stress fractures directly correlate to specific activities. Factors that commonly influence these fractures include an acute increase in new repetitive physical activity combined with muscle fatigue, training errors or improper athletic techniques, which challenge the regenerative and remodelling capacity of bone. Depending on the site that is subject to repetitive loading, various biomechanical factors can result in abnormal concentration of forces to specific areas of the FAC resulting in stress fracture. Decreased bone marrow density (BMD) is a major biologic cause for developing stress fractures. The female athlete triad comprising eating disorder, amenorrhea and osteoporosis in competitive athletes also predisposes to stress fractures. Vitamin D deficiency is also postulated to be the cause of these fractures and may contribute to poor healing. Clinical presentation is usually with vague pain of insidious onset which worsens with activity and improves with rest. Diffuse tenderness over the affected bone is common with only a minority having any visible swelling. Plain radiographs are the first line of investigation but rarely reveal an obvious fracture. MRI scans aid in diagnosis and CT scans help in treatment and characterisation of the fracture and monitor healing. Management relates to the site of injury, which stratifies them into high or low-risk. Stress fractures of the calcaneus, cuboid and cuneiforms are classed as low-risk fractures as they usually heal with simple activity modification or short duration of non-weight bearing. Stress fractures of the navicular, talus and hallucal sesamoids are classed as high-risk fractures due to higher rates of non-union and prolonged recovery time. Metatarsal fractures can be considered high or low-risk depending on location. These warrant aggressive management, often requiring surgical intervention. Adjuncts such as vitamin D supplements, external shockwave therapy, low-intensity pulsed ultrasound therapy have been used with varying success but there remains little supportive evidence of superiority in the available literature.

An assessment of the diagnosis, treatment, and outcomes of lower extremity stress fractures in pediatric and adolescent populations

OBJECTIVES

To present one of the first descriptive case series of pediatric and adolescent lower extremity stress injuries, their management, and outcomes in athletes and non-athletes.

METHODS

The IRB-approved retrospective study included patients under 18 years at a tertiary children's hospital who were diagnosed with a lower extremity stress fracture/reaction. Demographic data, mechanism of injury, physical exam, radiographic findings, treatment, & outcomes were collected. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted.

RESULTS

Ninety-seven patients with stress injuries on clinical exams and on radiographs or MRI were included. The average age when diagnosed was 11.7 years (range 1.1-18 years) and the most common injuries were to the tibia (n = 33, 28.4%) and the least common involved were the cuneiforms (n = 4, 3.4%). Patients under the age of 14 were more likely to experience cuboid and calcaneal stress injuries (mean age 5.5 and 8.3 years respectively). Nineteen patients (19.6%) had high-risk stress fractures, with the average age of 14.9 years versus 11.6 for those with low risk (p-value = 0.01) and return to activity time being 15 weeks compared to 10.5 (p-value = 0.027). The most common forms of treatment were controlled ankle motion (CAM), walker boots (58.6%), and physical therapy (PT) (38.1%). The mean Lower Extremity Function Score of the patient population was 73.8, indicating no clinically important difference from full functionality.

CONCLUSION

Lower extremity stress injuries in this cohort were most seen in the tibia, although patients younger than 14 had a high number of cuboid and calcaneal stress injuries. Those with high-risk stress fractures were older and took longer to recover from when compared to low-risk injuries. Treatment is commonly conservative, with CAM boots and PT being the most frequently utilized interventions and serving as a successful approach to treatment, with patients returning to activity at an average of 11.4 weeks, which is comparable to similar studies.

[Stress injuries of bone in children and adolescents]

Stress injuries of bone in childhood and adolescence are the result of an imbalance between physical stress on the growing musculoskeletal system and its intrinsic resilience. Children who are very active in sports are particularly affected. The classical stress injuries mainly occur in the area of the lower leg, the metatarsus and the lower lumbar spine due to the disproportionate load on healthy bone; however, overuse syndromes can also occur in the area of the growth plates and possibly lead to growth plate disorders. The anamnesis usually shows stress-related pain that has existed for a long time without trauma. As part of the differential diagnosis, a stress injury must first be included in the considerations due to it being a rare entity. An X‑ray examination can show the first signs of a stress reaction. In the event of a conspicuous periosteal reaction, a malignant event must also be considered. As a rule, the MRI examination is then groundbreaking and in some rare cases biopsies have to be considered. The treatment of stress injuries is usually conservative. Recurrences should be counteracted by exercise control.

Weight-Bearing CT with Maximum Ankle Dorsiflexion to Identify Impingement and Tibial Plafond Stress Fracture: A Case Report

CASE

A 25-year-old male pole vaulter presented with several months of right ankle pain. Radiographs showed an anterior tibial osteophyte with a small intra-articular body suggesting impingement. Weight-bearing computed tomography (CT) revealed an associated tibial plafond stress fracture. Subsequent arthroscopy with osteophyte resection and loose body removal significantly improved symptoms, and he gradually resumed training.

CONCLUSION

Stress fractures should always be considered in athletes with ankle pain. A unique aspect of this case was the use of weight-bearing CT in diagnosis and surgical planning. To our knowledge, this is the first described case in which weight-bearing CT was used in this fashion.

MRI of Pediatric Foot and Ankle Conditions

The increase in competitive sports practice among children and lack of ionizing radiation have resulted in a higher demand for MRI examinations. MRI of the children skeleton has some particularities that can lead orthopedists, pediatricians, and radiologists to diagnostic errors. The foot and ankle have several bones with abundant radiolucent and high signal intensity cartilage in several ossification centers, apophysis and physis, that can make this interpretation even harder. The present revision aims to show, how to differentiate between normal developmental findings and anatomic variants from pathologic conditions, whether mechanical, inflammatory, infectious, or neoplastic.

Physical activity and reduced risk of fracture in thyroid cancer patients after thyroidectomy - a nationwide cohort study

Objectives

Levothyroxine suppressive therapy following thyroidectomy for thyroid cancer patients is considered as a risk factor for osteoporosis and fragility fractures. We evaluated the association of regular exercise and exercise habit change with fracture risk in adults older than 40 years who underwent thyroidectomy for thyroid cancer.

Methods

We enrolled the patients who underwent thyroidectomy for thyroid cancer older than 40 years between 2010 and 2016 from the Korean National Health Insurance Service data, and they were followed through 2019. Based on the questionnaire of health examination within 2 years before and after surgery, whether regular exercise once a week was evaluated. The reference group for the statistical analysis was the continuing lack of physical activity group that did not exercise before or after surgery. For fractures newly diagnosed during the follow-up period, univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses were performed for risk evaluation.

Results

We evaluated 74,774 subjects, of whom 2,924 (3.9%) experienced any fractures during a median follow-up of 4.5 years. Compared with the group consistently lack of physical activity, the group that exercised before and after surgery showed a significant decrease in the risk of any fracture, vertebral fracture, and hip fracture: adjusted hazard ratio 0.848 (95% Confidence Interval 0.771-0.932), 0.703 (0.591-0.836), and 0.405 (0.224-0.732), respectively. For vertebral fracture, a significant reduction in fracture risk was confirmed even in patients who started their regular exercise after surgery: adjusted hazard ratio 0.779 (0.648-0.936). The risk reduction for vertebral fractures upon the initiation of exercise was found to be significant in the high-risk groups of patients: women and total thyroidectomy patients.

Conclusion

We suggest that maintaining or starting regular exercise after surgery may help prevent fractures in thyroid cancer patients older than 40 years who have undergone thyroidectomy.

Bone Stress Injuries at the Ankle and Foot

Bone stress injuries (BSIs) are a frequent finding in athletes, particularly of the foot and ankle. A BSI is caused by recurring microtrauma to the cortical or trabecular bone exceeding the repair capacity of normal bone. The most frequent fractures at the ankle are low risk, characterized by a low risk for nonunion. These include the posteromedial tibia, the calcaneus, and the metatarsal diaphysis. High-risk stress fractures have a higher risk for nonunion and need more aggressive treatment. Examples are the medial malleolus, navicular bone, and the base of the second and fifth metatarsal bone.Imaging features depend on the primary involvement of cortical versus trabecular bone. Conventional radiographs may remain normal up to 2 to 3 weeks. For cortical bone, early signs of BSIs are a periosteal reaction or the "gray cortex sign," followed by cortical thickening and fracture line depiction. In trabecular bone, a sclerotic dense line may be seen. Magnetic resonance imaging enables early detection of BSIs and can differentiate between a stress reaction and a fracture. We review typical anamnestic/clinical findings, epidemiology and risk factors, imaging characteristics, and findings at typical locations of BSIs at the foot and ankle that may help guide treatment strategy and patient recovery.

Fifth Distal Phalanx Avulsion Fracture in a High-Level Marathon Runner

Fifth metatarsal fractures are common foot injuries that involve the long bone on the outer side of the foot, and avulsion fractures involving the short bone and the fifth distal phalanx of the foot have never been reported. A 25-year-old female marathon runner sustained an avulsion fracture of the distal lateral phalanges of the fifth metatarsal. The patient's high functional demands necessitated a conservative approach to minimize complications and facilitate efficient fracture healing. The patient underwent a comprehensive chiropractic rehabilitation program that focused on progressive weight-bearing exercises, range-of-motion activities, strengthening exercises, instrument-assisted soft tissue mobilization (IASTM), therapeutic ultrasound, and laser therapy to stimulate the speed of healing. The patient's progression was closely monitored throughout the rehabilitation process. Because of the nonoperative management and chiropractic rehabilitation, the patient successfully returned to her running activities within a six-week duration. This case demonstrates the effectiveness of nonoperative management and chiropractic rehabilitation in promoting the healing of avulsion fractures of the fifth metatarsal in high-level athletes. This conservative approach can facilitate a safe and efficient return to running activities while minimizing complications and reinjury risks.

Imaging of Overuse Injuries of the Ankle and Foot in Sport and Work

Overuse injuries of the ankle and foot are common injuries both in sport and in a work-related context. After clinical assessment, imaging is key for early diagnosis. In this overview article, we focus on imaging techniques, protocols, and imaging findings of overuse injuries of the ankle and foot; we emphasize the important role of structured reporting; and we discuss clinical symptoms, epidemiology, and risk factors in sports and in a work-related context.

A Review of Pediatric Heel Pain

The objective of this review article is to provide orthopaedic surgeons and general practitioners a reference and guidance for the evaluation and workup of heel pain in pediatric patients. The authors performed a comprehensive literature search to review the etiologies and management of heel pain in patients <18 years of age. Relevant studies in Medline/PubMed and EMBASE were searched from inception to March 3, 2022 using medical subject headings and text words without limitations on language or study type. The initial search utilized the following Boolean operators: (children) AND (heel pain); (pediatric) AND (heel pain). Heel pain in the pediatric population is usually a benign condition. Sever's apophysitis is the most common etiology of heel pain in pediatric patients. Most causes of heel pain in the pediatric population do not require imaging or extensive workup. However, providers must maintain a high index of suspicion for symptoms that could indicate a more severe pathology.

Stress Injuries in the Athlete

Stress fractures are a common injury that present in athletes because of the high intensity and repetitive nature of many sports. These injuries require a high index of suspicion in the treating clinician to allow for timely management. Though most low-risk fractures heal well with conservative management, high-risk stress fractures as well as any fracture in the elite athlete may warrant surgical intervention as well as an augmented treatment and rehabilitation regimen.

Fracture through Pre-Existing Tarsal Coalition: A Narrative Review

Tarsal coalitions are abnormal fibrous or bony connections between the tarsal bones of the foot. While not always symptomatic, coalitions can cause pain, alterations in forefoot and hindfoot morphology, and alterations in foot and ankle biomechanics. Previous research has described the association of tarsal coalitions with fractures of the lower extremity. Multiple reports of acute fracture in the presence of tarsal coalition have been presented, as have reports of stress fractures of the foot and ankle with concomitant coalition, insidious in onset and thought to be related to aberrancies in foot and ankle biomechanics. The purpose of this review is to discuss the biomechanics seen in tarsal coalitions and to describe reports of fracture occurring concomitantly with tarsal coalitions. We will discuss diagnostic options and treatment approaches in the setting of fracture with preexisting tarsal coalition.

Os supranaviculare and navicular osteochondral lesion contributing to the development of a navicular stress fracture in an adolescent male athlete: Case report

Stress fractures of the tarsal navicular bone can be problematic in the athlete. This case details the injury and outcome of an adolescent male athlete who experienced one year of intermittent foot pain without acute trauma. Radiographs and computed tomography demonstrated a triad of a navicular stress fracture, an os supranaviculare, and an osteochondral defect of the navicular bone. The patient underwent successful operative fixation and returned to painless full function with imaging demonstrating healing at six months. Diagnosis of a navicular stress fracture in the setting of both an os supranaviculare and osteochondral lesion of the navicular bone have not been reported elsewhere in the literature. While repetitive loading on the navicular bone can independently produce a stress fracture, the patient had an increased risk for this injury; the presumably pre-existing navicular osteochondral lesion and os supranaviculare may have resulted in decreased effective articular surface area, thereby increasing force on the navicular bone and producing a stress fracture. Understanding navicular stress fractures and concomitant bony pathology contributing to injury is crucial to successful diagnosis, management, and prevention of recurrence.

Impaired Bone Microarchitecture at Distal Radial and Tibial Reference Locations Is Not Related to Injury Site in Athletes With Bone Stress Injury

BACKGROUND

Bone stress injuries (BSIs) are common sports injuries that occur because of an imbalance between microdamage accumulation and removal through bone remodeling. The underlying bone phenotype has been assumed to be a contributing factor. However, the bone microarchitecture of athletes with BSI is not well characterized, and no study has investigated whether impaired bone microarchitecture is associated with bone composition or anatomic site of injury.

PURPOSE/HYPOTHESIS

This cross-sectional study characterizes the bone microarchitecture at distal radial and tibial reference locations in athletes with BSI. Based on previous dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) findings, the aim was to compare anatomic injury sites, hypothesizing that athletes with BSIs in bones with greater trabecular composition show impaired bone microarchitecture parameters compared with those with BSIs in bones with greater cortical composition.

STUDY DESIGN

Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3.

METHODS

Athletes who had presented to our outpatient clinic because of a high-grade BSI (ie, stress fracture) were retrospectively included. Blood and urine samples were collected. Areal bone mineral density (aBMD) was assessed by DXA at the lumbar spine and both hips. Bone microarchitecture was analyzed by high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (HR-pQCT) at the distal radius and tibia. HR-pQCT parameters were expressed in relation to available sex-, age-, and device-adjusted reference values and compared with a cohort of 53 age- and sex-matched controls.

RESULTS

In total, 53 athletes had a BSI of the foot (n = 20), tibia/fibula (n = 18), pelvis (n = 9), femur (n = 5), or sternum (n = 1). Based on DXA measurements, a Z-score of -1.0 or lower was found in 32 of 53 (60.4%) of the athletes, of whom 16 of 53 (30.2%) had a Z score -2.0 or lower. While an impairment of cortical area (P = .034 and P = .001) and thickness (P = .029 and P < .001) was detected at the distal radius and tibia in the BSI cohort compared with controls, no differences in BMD or bone microarchitecture were observed between anatomic injury sites. Furthermore, no difference was revealed when BSIs were grouped into cortical- and trabecular-rich sites.

CONCLUSION

Reduced aBMD and impaired cortical bone microarchitecture were present in a considerable number of athletes with BSI. Neither aBMD nor bone microarchitecture was related to the injury site, highlighting the multifactorial etiology of BSI.

Open Reduction and Screw Fixation of a Diastatic Bipartite Hallux Sesamoid in Turf Toe Injury: A Case Report

We present a case of a 25-year-old male professional soccer player who complained of severe pain over the first metatarsal head after opponent contact during a soccer game. Clinical findings showed swelling and tenderness. Initial radiographs showed a diastasis of a bipartite medial sesamoid between the fragments as compared to radiographs taken 4 years earlier of the same foot. A computed tomography scan was performed objectifying the widened interval and also showing an angulation of the proximal fragment. Open reduction and screw fixation were performed, leading to adequate positioning of the 2 bipartite fragments. The patient showed good clinical recovery and returned to the same performance level. Turf toe injury with diastasis of a medial bipartite sesamoid can be treated successfully with this operative technique.Levels of Evidence: Level V: Case report.

High-Resolution Ultrasound of the Forefoot and Common Pathologies

Forefoot pain is common in clinical practice. Careful history taking and routine physical examination are initially performed for diagnosis, but imaging can confirm the clinical suspicion and play a key role in management. Ultrasound (US) can provide a visualization of the fine anatomy of the forefoot and is a useful method for evaluating various lesions causing forefoot pain. In this review, we provide the detailed anatomical structures of the forefoot and their normal appearances on US. We also focus on the most common pathologies affecting the forefoot, including plantar plate tear, sesamoiditis, bone fracture, synovitis, tenosynovitis, bursitis, Morton’s neuromas, and foreign bodies.

The Metatarsal Cortical Index as an Indicator of Insufficiency Fracture of the Foot

The diagnosis of metatarsal stress fractures is challenging. Standard imaging often shows false-negative results. The aim of this study was to create reliable radiologic outcome parameters to predict insufficiency fractures of the metatarsals. We performed an age- and sex-matched case-control study of patients with (n = 18) and without insufficiency fracture (n = 18) of the foot. The metatarsal cortical index (MCI) for each metatarsal was developed to predict an insufficiency fracture. The MCI of each metatarsal was significantly decreased in the insufficiency fracture group compared with the control group (p < .01). The MCI of the fourth ray yielded the highest area under the curve among the analyzed MCI values (area under the curve, 0.79; 95% confidence interval, 0.61-0.90). A cut-off value of 1.62 for the MCI of the fourth ray yielded a sensitivity of 78% and a specificity of 78% to predict insufficiency fracture of the foot (odds ratio, 12.25; 95% confidence interval, 2.54-58.97), and enabled accurate allocation to the insufficiency fracture group versus the control group in 74% of cases. In conclusion, a decreased MCI is associated with metatarsal insufficiency fractures and enables an accurate diagnosis in 3 out of 4 cases. The MCI might aid clinicians in identifying insufficiency fracture, and raise the suspicion of the diagnosis without additional imaging studies.

Bilateral Medial Malleolus Stress Fractures in a High School Athlete Treated With Open Reduction Internal Fixation

Pediatric medial malleolus stress fracture is a rare pathology and has limited data on management. The authors present a case of bilateral medial malleolus stress fracture treated with operative fixation followed by a course of immobilization and protected weight-bearing.

Epidemiology of Injuries in National Collegiate Athletic Association Women's Track and Field: 2014-2015 Through 2018-2019

CONTEXT

Women's track and field events at the National Collegiate Athletic Association level have grown in popularity in recent years, and track and field athletes are vulnerable to a broad range of potential injuries.

BACKGROUND

Routine examination of track and field injuries is important for identifying emerging patterns in injury incidence.

METHODS

Exposure and injury data collected in the National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance Program during the 2014-2015 to 2018-2019 academic years were analyzed. Injury counts, rates, and proportions were used to describe injury characteristics, and injury rate ratios were used to examine differential injury rates.

RESULTS

The overall injury rate was 2.20 per 1000 athlete exposures; the competition injury rate was higher than the practice injury rate (injury rate ratio = 1.73; 95% confidence interval = 1.51, 1.97). Hamstring tears (8.9%), medial tibial stress syndrome (5.4%), and lateral ligament complex tears (4.2%) were the most reported injuries.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the results of this study, further attention may be directed toward factors associated with noncontact injury risk in the competitions. The changing injury rates of most reported injuries also warrant monitoring post 2018-2019.

Return to Sport Following Operative Treatment of Displaced Medial Sesamoid Fractures in NCAA Division I Football Players

Level of Evidence: Level V.

Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Management of Bone Stress Injuries in Adolescent Athletes: A Narrative Review

Physical activity is known to be beneficial for bone; however, some athletes who train intensely are at risk of bone stress injury (BSI). Incidence in adolescent athlete populations is between 3.9 and 19% with recurrence rates as high as 21%. Participation in physical training can be highly skeletally demanding, particularly during periods of rapid growth in adolescence, and when competition and training demands are heaviest. Sports involving running and jumping are associated with a higher incidence of BSI and some athletes appear to be more susceptible than others. Maintaining a very lean physique in aesthetic sports (gymnastics, figure skating and ballet) or a prolonged negative energy balance in extreme endurance events (long distance running and triathlon) may compound the risk of BSI with repetitive mechanical loading of bone, due to the additional negative effects of hormonal disturbances. The following review presents a summary of the epidemiology of BSI in the adolescent athlete, risk factors for BSI (physical and behavioural characteristics, energy balance and hormone disruption, growth velocity, sport-specific risk, training load, etc.), prevention and management strategies.

Nonunion of a Stress Fracture at the Base of the Second Metatarsal in a Soccer Player Treated by Osteosynthesis with the Bridging Plate Fixation Technique

Background

A stress fracture of the second metatarsal base in soccer players is extremely rare. In this case study, we report a nonunion of a stress fracture at the base of the second metatarsal in a female soccer player who had persistent pain despite continued conservative treatment, who then was treated with the bridging plate fixation technique. Case Report. A 19-year-old female college soccer player complained of pain on the dorsum of her right midfoot during a game without history of trauma and was conservatively treated for 6 months. Radiographic examination showed an oblique fracture with small bone fragment at the proximal base of the second metatarsal and computed tomography demonstrated sclerotic change around the fracture site. We diagnosed her with nonunion of a stress fracture at the base of the second metatarsal and performed operative treatments using autogenous cancellous iliac bone grafting and plate fixation bridging a second metatarsal and medial cuneiform with a locking plate. At 4 months after the initial surgery, she was able to return to playing soccer at preinjury level without complications or pain.

Conclusion

We report a rare case of nonunion of a stress fracture at the base of the second metatarsal in a female soccer player without underlying diseases. Surgical treatment was applied, because the conservative treatment was ineffective for 6 months and led to nonunion. The plate fixation technique bridging the second metatarsal and medial cuneiform was a useful option to attain the bone fusion for small fracture fragment for a treatment of nonunion of a stress fracture at the base of the second metatarsal.

Radiologic Evaluation of the Child with a Limp

A child presenting with a limp can present a diagnostic challenge to pediatricians. Clinical presentation, age, and history all contribute to the initial differential diagnosis; however, imaging plays a key role in the ultimate diagnosis, and the correct imaging study is essential to save time and health care expenses. This article will present a few of the more common causes of a limp and the recently updated imaging recommendations from the American College of Radiology to aid in final diagnosis. [Pediatr Ann. 2020;49(9):e395-e402.].

Part II: presentation, diagnosis, classification, treatment, and prevention of stress fractures in female athletes

Objectives: Stress fractures (SFx) occur as the result of repetitive loads over short periods of time, which leads to micro-damage of the bone through cortical resorption, ultimately leading to fracture. They are a common injury in female athletes and often cause significant morbidity. The goal of this study is to review the presentation, diagnosis, classification, treatment, and prevention of SFx in female athletes.Results: A thorough history, physical exam, and appropriate imaging can facilitate early diagnosis of stress fracture (SFx) and faster resolution of symptoms with more conservative management. The female athlete triad is an especially important factor that contributes to the increased risk of SFx in females. The continuum of stress injuries ranges from mild microfailure to complete fracture, which has resulted in the development of newer grading schemas through MRI and radiographic findings. Stress fractures are also classified as low- or high-risk according to anatomic location, as blood supply and applied forces at different locations affect the likelihood of fracture propagation, displacement, delayed union, or non-union.Conclusions: The ability to screen for at-risk athletes is paramount in preventing SFx. Recognition and prompt treatment of the female athlete triad requires a multidisciplinary approach in order to restore energy balance, correct menstrual irregularities, and improve bone health. This review provides a basis for understanding how to identify and treat stress fractures, which may allow treating physicians to diagnose this condition earlier and minimize any associated morbidity.

Part I: epidemiology and risk factors for stress fractures in female athletes

Objectives: Stress fractures (SFx) are a common athletic injury, occurring in up to 40% of athletes at some point in their career. These injuries can cause pain, permanent disability, financial burden, and loss of playing time. This review presents updated epidemiology and comprehensive analysis of risk factors for stress fractures, especially as it pertains to female athletes.Results: Stress fractures (SFx) account for up to 10% of all orthopedic injuries and up to 20% of injuries seen in sports medicine clinics, with an incidence among female athletes as high as 13%. Lower extremity SFx represent 80-95% of SFx, and the increased popularity of endurance running has contributed to the tibia (49% prevalence) replacing the metatarsals (9%) as the most common location for lower extremity SFx. Studies have demonstrated that 50% of peak bone mass is acquired during adolescence, a 'peak time' for eating disorder and female athlete triad development; furthermore, catch-up growth cannot be expected in athletes with diminished bone growth in this critical period. The female athlete triad (low energy availability with or without disordered eating, menstrual dysfunction, and low bone mineral density) are well-known risk factors for SFx; the risk of SFx for female athletes presenting with a single aspect of the triad is 15-20%, and this risk increases to 30-50% for female athletes presenting with multiple aspects of the triad.Conclusion: This review provides a basis for how to identify populations at greatest risk for SFx. Prompt recognition of the intrinsic and extrinsic risk factors for SFx in female athletes is imperative to early diagnosis and to develop targeted strategies to prevent SFx occurrence or recurrence.

Forefoot Pain in the Lesser Toes: Anatomical Considerations and Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings

Various conditions may result in forefoot pain. Magnetic resonance (MR) imaging allows accurate assessment of many of these conditions. We provide an overview of forefoot disorders divided into bones, capsule and plantar plate, musculotendinous structures, neurovascular structures, and subcutaneous tissue. We review normal anatomical features as well as MR imaging findings of common disorders.

Detecting stress injury (fatigue fracture) in fibular cortical bone using quantitative ultrashort echo time-magnetization transfer (UTE-MT): An ex vivo study

Bone stress injury (BSI) incidents have been increasing amongst athletes in recent years as a result of more intense sporting activities. Cortical bone in the tibia and fibula is one of the most common BSI sites. Nowadays, clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the recommended technique for BSI diagnosis at an early stage. However, clinical MRI focuses on edema observations in surrounding soft tissues, rather than the injured components of the bone. Specifically, both normal and injured bone are invisible in conventional clinical MRI. In contrast, ultrashort echo time (UTE)-MRI is able to detect the rapidly decaying signal from the bone. This study aimed to employ UTE-MRI for fatigue fracture detection in fibula cortical bone through an ex vivo investigation. Fourteen human fibular samples (47 ± 20 years old, four women) were subjected to cyclic loading on a four-point bending setup. The loading was displacement controlled to induce -5000 ± 1500 μ-strain at 4 Hz. Loading was stopped when bone stiffness was reduced by 20%. Fibula samples were imaged twice, using UTE-MRI and micro-computed tomography (μCT), first pre-loading and second post-loading. After loading, the macromolecular fraction (MMF) from UTE-MT modeling demonstrated a significant decrease (12% ± 20%, P = 0.02) on average. Single-component T2 * also decreased significantly by BSI (12% ± 11%, P = 0.01) on average. MMF reduction is hypothesized to be a result of collagenous matrix rupture and water increase. However, faster T2 * decay might be a result of water shifts towards newly developed microcracks with higher susceptibility. Despite this good sensitivity level of the UTE-MRI technique, the μCT-based porosity at a voxel size of 9 μm was not affected by loading. UTE-MRI shows promise as a new quantitative technique to detect BSI.

Is Use of Bone Cement for Treatment of Second Metatarsal Stress Fractures Safe? A Case Report

Metatarsal stress fractures are common injuries of the foot and can be a source of chronic pain without appropriate management. Conservative management is first line, but surgery may be indicated in athletes, cases of nonunion, and fractures of the fifth metatarsal. We report a case of a 34-year-old female who presented to clinic for intractable pain of the left foot secondary to a stress fracture of the left second metatarsal, which had been previously treated with injectable acrylic bone cement. Calcium sulfate hydroxyapatite cement has a multitude of applications in orthopedic surgery, but to our knowledge no studies have documented its use in the treatment of metatarsal stress fractures. Our findings suggest that injectable calcium sulfate hydroxyapatite cement is not a suitable stand-alone treatment in fractures of the second metatarsal.

Bilateral Stress Fractures of the Talus Associated with Adult-Acquired Flatfoot Deformities

Adult-acquired flatfoot deformity is a progressive flattening of the arch of the foot that results from posterior tibial tendon insufficiency with a predilection for middle-aged women. A lateralized force vector associated with hindfoot valgus in adult-acquired flatfoot produces lateral ankle pain due to impingement at the lateral hindfoot, which can even lead to stress fractures of the distal fibula. Here, we present the rare case of a 73-year-old woman who presented with stress fractures of the bilateral taluses and unilateral distal fibula accompanied by severe adult-acquired flatfoot deformities.

Stress fracture of the second proximal phalanx of the foot in teenage athletes: Unrecognized location of stress fracture

Background

Adolescent athletes are a high-risk population for stress fractures. We report four cases of stress fractures of the second proximal phalanx, which had not been previously diagnosed as the location of the stress fracture of the foot, in teenage athletes.

Case report

All fractures were on the plantar side of the proximal phalangeal base, and the oblique images of the plain radiograph clearly depicted the fractures. Notably, three out of the four patients had histories of stress fracture of other locations. While three athletes with acute cases were able to make an early return to play with simple conservative management, the chronic case required surgical treatment for this rare injury.

Conclusion

Although a rare injury, it is important that clinicians be aware of this type of stress fracture, as a timely diagnosis can avoid the need for surgical treatment and allow an early return to play.

Stress fractures of the foot and ankle, part 2: site-specific etiology, imaging, and treatment, and differential diagnosis

Stress fractures of the foot and ankle are a commonly encountered problem among athletes and individuals participating in a wide range of activities. This illustrated review, the second of two parts, discusses site-specific etiological factors, imaging appearances, treatment options, and differential considerations of stress fractures of the foot and ankle. The imaging and clinical management of stress fractures of the foot and ankle are highly dependent on the specific location of the fracture, mechanical forces acting upon the injured site, vascular supply of the injured bone, and the proportion of trabecular to cortical bone at the site of injury. The most common stress fractures of the foot and ankle are low risk and include the posteromedial tibia, the calcaneus, and the second and third metatarsals. The distal fibula is a less common location, and stress fractures of the cuboid and cuneiforms are very rare, but are also considered low risk. In contrast, high-risk stress fractures are more prone to delayed union or nonunion and include the anterior tibial cortex, medial malleolus, navicular, base of the second metatarsal, proximal fifth metatarsal, hallux sesamoids, and the talus. Of these high-risk types, stress fractures of the anterior tibial cortex, the navicular, and the proximal tibial cortex may be predisposed to poor healing because of the watershed blood supply in these locations. The radiographic differential diagnosis of stress fracture includes osteoid osteoma, malignancy, and chronic osteomyelitis.

The face of war: Trauma analysis of a mass grave from the Battle of Lützen (1632)

Contemporary accounts of battles are often incomplete or even erroneous because they reflect the—often biased—viewpoints of the authors. Battlefield archaeology faces the task of compiling an historical analysis of a battle and of gathering all the available facts. Besides cultural historical evidence and artefacts, the human remains of those who have fallen in battle also provide invaluable information. In studying mass graves from a military context, the injury types and patterns are significant. They allow us to reconstruct the circumstances surrounding the soldiers’ deaths and provide information on the hostilities that occurred on the battlefield. One such mass grave was discovered in 2011 at Lützen, Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). Based on its geographical location and on the results obtained from archaeological examinations carried out in the area, the grave could be dated to the Thirty Years War (1618–1648). Further archaeological research confirmed that the dead had been soldiers from the Battle of Lützen (1632). The mass grave was block-lifted and then comprehensively examined at the State Museum of Prehistory in Halle (Saale). As well as osteological examinations to determine age, sex, height, state of health, i.e. diseases or injuries, imaging methods were also employed and histological and isotopic analyses carried out. The focus of this study was on the injuries sustained by the soldiers both prior to and during the battle. The results revealed that the 47 deceased had been between the ages of 15 and 50 when they died. Numerous healed injuries showed that the men had often been involved in violent encounters. Approximately three in every four soldiers had injuries that could have been fatal. Wounds inflicted by handguns, particularly to the skull, were predominant. The integrative analysis of the archaeological and anthropological data allowed us to conclude that the majority had been killed during a cavalry attack.

Lower limb stress fractures in sport: Optimising their management and outcome

Stress fractures in sport are becoming increasing more common, comprising up to 10% of all of sporting injuries. Around 90% of such injuries are located in the lower limb. This articles aims to define the optimal management of lower limb stress fractures in the athlete, with a view to maximise return rates and minimise return times to sport. Treatment planning of this condition is specific to the location of the injury. However, there remains a clear division of stress fractures by “high” and “low” risk. “Low risk” stress fractures are those with a low probability of fracture propagation, delayed union, or non-union, and so can be managed reliably with rest and exercise limitation. These include stress fractures of the Postero-Medial Tibial Diaphysis, Metatarsal Shafts, Distal Fibula, Medial Femoral Neck, Femoral Shaft and Calcaneus. “High risk” stress fractures, in contrast, have increased rates of fracture propagation, displacement, delayed and non-union, and so require immediate cessation of activity, with orthopaedic referral, to assess the need for surgical intervention. These include stress fractures of the Anterior Tibial Diaphysis, Fifth Metatarsal Base, Medial Malleolus, Lateral Femoral Neck, Tarsal Navicular and Great Toe Sesamoids. In order to establish the optimal methods for managing these injuries, we present and review the current evidence which guides the treatment of stress fractures in athletes. From this, we note an increased role for surgical management of certain high risk stress fractures to improve return times and rates to sport. Following this, key recommendations are provided for the management of the common stress fracture types seen in the athlete. Five case reports are also presented to illustrate the application of sport-focussed lower limb stress fracture treatment in the clinical setting.

Visualization of stress fractures of the foot using PET-MRI: a feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Diagnosis and treatment of stress fractures still remains to be a clinical and radiological challenge. Therapeutic options vary from conservative treatment to surgical treatment without a clear treatment concept. Recently the combination of PET and MRI has been introduced, aiming a superior diagnostic accuracy in clinical practice. Therefore the aim of our study was to analyse whether PET-MRI would be a feasible technique to recognize stress fractures of the foot and to analyse if our conservative treatment plan leads to a good clinical outcome.

METHODS

Therefore, 20 patients with suspected stress fractures of the foot and ankle underwent plain radiography and (18)F-Fluoride PET-MRI. Two blinded readers assessed in consensus both imaging techniques for the presence of stress fracture, stress reaction or osteoarthritis. Patients with stress fractures or stress reactions in the foot and ankle area underwent our conservative treatment plan, with immobilization in a VACO®ped cast for 6 weeks under partial weight bearing on forearm crutches. The benefit of our conservative therapeutic concept was evaluated by the patients on the basis of VAS and FAOS scoring systems before and after treatment.

RESULTS

8 out of 20 patients underwent conservative treatment after diagnosis of either a stress fracture or a stress reaction of the foot and ankle area. PET-MRI identified four stress fractures and seven stress reactions. In all cases, no pathological findings were present on plain X-ray. FAOS and VAS significantly improved according to the patients' records.

CONCLUSIONS

PET-MRI seems to be a useful modality to diagnose stress fractures and stress reactions of the foot and ankle area, especially when conventional modalities, such as plain radiographs fail. Conservative management is a promising therapeutic option for the treatment of stress fractures. To rule out the benefits compared to a surgical treatment plan, further studies are needed.