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Toledano-Osorio M, de Luna-Bertos E, Toledano M, Manzano-Moreno FJ, Ruiz C, Sanz M, Osorio R. NP-12 peptide functionalized nanoparticles counteract the effect of bacterial lipopolysaccharide on cultured osteoblasts. Dent Mater 2024; 40:1296-1304. [PMID: 38871528 DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2024.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether nanoparticles (NPs) functionalized with Tideglusib (TDg, NP-12), and deposited on titanium surfaces, would counteract the effect of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on osteoblasts. METHODS Experimental groups were: (a) Titanium discs (TiD), (b) TiD covered with undoped NPs (Un-NPs) and (c) TiD covered with TDg-doped NPs (TDg-NPs). Human primary osteoblasts were cultured onto these discs, in the presence or absence of bacterial LPS. Cell proliferation was assessed by MTT-assay and differentiation by measuring the alkaline phosphatase activity. Mineral nodule formation was assessed by the alizarin red test. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction was used to study the expression of Runx-2, OSX, ALP, OSC, OPG, RANKL, Col-I, BMP-2, BMP-7, TGF-β1, VEGF, TGF-βR1, TGF-βR2, and TGF-βR3 genes. Osteoblasts morphology was studied by Scanning Electron Microscopy. One-way ANOVA or Kruskal-Wallis and Bonferroni multiple comparisons tests were carried out (p < 0.05). RESULTS TDg-NPs enhanced osteoblasts proliferation. Similarly, this group increased ALP production and mineral nodules formation. TDg-NPs on titanium discs resulted in overexpression of the proliferative genes, OSC and OSX, regardless of LPS activity. In the absence of LPS, TDg-NPs up-regulated Runx2, COL-I, ALP, BMP2 and BMP7 genes. OPG/RANKL gene ratios were increased about 2500 and 4,000-fold by TDg-NPs, when LPS was added or not, respectively. In contact with the TDg-NPs osteoblasts demonstrated an elongated spindle-shaped morphology with extracellular matrix production. SIGNIFICANCE TDg-NPs on titanium discs counteracted the detrimental effect of LPS by preventing the decrease on osteoblasts proliferation and mineralization, and produced an overexpression of proliferative and bone-promoting genes on human primary osteoblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Toledano-Osorio
- Postgraduate Program of Specialization in Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Elvira de Luna-Bertos
- Biomedical Group (BIO277). Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Spain; Instituto Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain.
| | - Manuel Toledano
- Instituto Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain; University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, Granada 18071, Spain.
| | - Francisco Javier Manzano-Moreno
- Instituto Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain; University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, Granada 18071, Spain; Biomedical Group (BIO277), Department of Stomatology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Granada, Spain.
| | - Concepción Ruiz
- Biomedical Group (BIO277). Department of Nursing, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Granada, Spain; Instituto Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, University of Granada, Centro de Investigación Biomédica (CIBM), Parque de Tecnológico de la Salud (PTS), Granada, Spain.
| | - Mariano Sanz
- ETEP (Etiology and Therapy of Periodontal and Peri-Implant Diseases) Research Group. University Complutense of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Raquel Osorio
- Instituto Investigación Biosanitaria, ibs. Granada, Granada, Spain; University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, Granada 18071, Spain.
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Toledano M, Aguilera FS, Fernández-Romero E, Lagos AJ, Bonilla M, Lynch CD, Osorio R. Dentin remineralization using a stimuli-responsive engineered small molecule GSK3 antagonists-functionalized adhesive. Dent Mater 2024; 40:393-406. [PMID: 38114343 DOI: 10.1016/j.dental.2023.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Tideglusib has shown great performance in terms of dentin regenerative properties. This study aims to evaluate bonding ability, of demineralized dentin infiltrated with polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) doped with tideglusib (TG) (TG-NPs). METHODS Dentin conditioned surfaces were infiltrated with NPs and TG-NPs. Bonded interfaces were created and stored for 24 h and then submitted to mechanical, chemical and thermal challenging. The resin-dentin interface was evaluated through a doubled dye fluorescent technique and a calcium chelator fluorophore under a confocal laser scanning microscopy, and by field emission scanning electron microscopy. RESULTS Dentin surfaces treated with TG-NPs and load cycled produced higher bond strength than the rest of the groups. Immersion of dentin specimens treated with undoped-NPs in collagenase solution attained the lowest microtensile bond strength (MTBS) values. Both porosity and nanoleakage decreased when dentin was infiltrated with TG-NPs, that revealed strong signals of xylenol orange stain at both hybrid layer and dentinal tubules. The presence of NPs, in general, inducted the presence of mineralized interfaces after mechanical loading and thermocycling. CONCLUSIONS Nanoparticles doped with tideglusib promoted the highest dentin bonding efficacy among groups, as they facilitated the maximum bond strength values with creation of mineral deposits at the hybrid layer and dentinal walls. Tideglusib enabled scarce porosity, nanoleakage and advanced sealing among dentin groups. SIGNIFICANCE Doping hydrophilic polymeric NPs with tideglusib, infiltrated in etched dentin represents a reproducible technique to create reparative dentin at the resin-dentin interface, by inducing therapeutic bioactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Toledano
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Fátima S Aguilera
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Enrique Fernández-Romero
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Alejandro Js Lagos
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Marco Bonilla
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
| | - Christopher D Lynch
- University Dental School & Hospital/Cork University Dental School & Hospital, Cork, Ireland
| | - Raquel Osorio
- University of Granada, Faculty of Dentistry, Colegio Máximo de Cartuja s/n, 18071 Granada, Spain
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Hanna S, Eldeen GN, Alfayate RP, Aly R. The regenerative potential of Tideglusib and CHIR99021 small molecules as potent odontogenic differentiation enhancers of human dental pulp stem cells. Clin Oral Investig 2023; 28:48. [PMID: 38153556 DOI: 10.1007/s00784-023-05452-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/29/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the effect of Tideglusib and CHIR99021 small molecules on the odontogenic differentiation potential of human dental pulp stem cells (hDPSCs) via Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation. METHODOLOGY hDPSCs were isolated from impacted third molars indicated for extraction and were characterized by flow cytometry. hDPSCs were then induced to differentiate into odontogenic lineage in the presence of Tideglusib and CHIR99021. Odontogenic differentiation was evaluated using Alizarin Red stain and RT-PCR for expression of odontogenic specific differentiation markers: DSPP, DMP1, ALP, OPN, and RUNX2 in relation to undifferentiated cells. RT-PCR was also conducted to assess the expression of Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation marker (AXIN2). One-way ANOVA Kruskal-Wallis test was used for statistical analysis. RESULTS Wnt/β-catenin pathway was successfully activated by Tideglusib and CHIR99021 in hDPSCs where AXIN2 was significantly upregulated. Successful odontogenic differentiation was confirmed by Alizarin Red staining of calcified nodules. RT-PCR for odontogenic differentiation markers DSPP, DMP1, and RUNX expression by hDPSCs induced by CHIR99021 was higher than that expressed by hDPSCs induced by Tideglusib, whereas expression of OPN and ALP was higher in Tideglusib-induced cells than in CHIR99021-induced cells. CONCLUSIONS Both small molecules successfully induced odontogenic differentiation of hDPSCs through Wnt/β-catenin pathway activation. CLINICAL RELEVANCE These findings suggest that Tideglusib and CHIR99021 can be applied clinically in pulp regeneration to improve strategies for vital pulp regeneration and to promote dentine repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samer Hanna
- Endodontics Department, Universidad Europea De Madrid (UEM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ghada Nour Eldeen
- Molecular Genetics & Enzymology Department, Human Genetic & Genome Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
| | | | - Riham Aly
- Basic Dental Science Department, Oral Medicine & Dentistry Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
- Stem Cells Lab, Center of Excellence for Advanced Sciences, National Research Centre, 33 El Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt.
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Kornsuthisopon C, Tompkins KA, Osathanon T. Tideglusib enhances odontogenic differentiation in human dental pulp stem cells in vitro. Int Endod J 2023; 56:369-384. [PMID: 36458950 DOI: 10.1111/iej.13877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
AIM Tideglusib is a small molecule agonist of the canonical Wnt pathway. The present study investigated the influence of Tideglusib on human dental pulp stem cell (hDPSC) proliferation, apoptosis, migration and odonto/osteogenic differentiation. METHODOLOGY hDPSCs were treated with 50, 100 nM or 200 nM Tideglusib. β-catenin accumulation was detected by immunofluorescence staining. Colony-forming unit ability was assessed by staining with Coomassie blue. Cell cycle progression and cell apoptosis were investigated using flow cytometry. Cell migration was examined using an in vitro wound-healing assay. Osteogenic differentiation was examined using alkaline phosphatase (ALP) staining, alizarin red S staining and osteogenic-related gene expression. The gene expression profile was examined using a high-throughput RNA sequencing technique. All experiments were repeated using cells derived from at least four different donors (n = 4). The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to identify significant differences between two independent group comparisons. For three or more group comparisons, statistical differences were assessed using the Kruskal-Wallis test followed by pairwise comparison. The significance level was set at 5% (p < .05). RESULTS Tideglusib activated the Wnt signalling pathway in hDPSCs as demonstrated by an increase in cytoplasmic β-catenin accumulation and nuclear translocation. Tideglusib did not affect hDPSC proliferation, cell cycle progression, cell apoptosis or cell migration. In contrast, 50 and 100 nM Tideglusib significantly enhanced mineralization and osteogenic marker gene expression (RUNX2, ALP, BMP2 and DSPP; p < .05). CONCLUSIONS Tideglusib enhanced the odonto/osteogenic differentiation of hDPSCs. Therefore, incorporating this bioactive molecule in a pulp-capping material could be a promising strategy to promote dentine repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chatvadee Kornsuthisopon
- Dental Stem Cell Biology Research Unit, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kevin A Tompkins
- Office of Research Affairs, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Thanaphum Osathanon
- Dental Stem Cell Biology Research Unit, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Office of Research Affairs, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Ramirez-GarciaLuna JL, Rangel-Berridi K, Olasubulumi OO, Rosenzweig DH, Henderson JE, Gawri R, Martineau PA. Enhanced Bone Remodeling After Fracture Priming. Calcif Tissue Int 2022; 110:349-366. [PMID: 34668029 DOI: 10.1007/s00223-021-00921-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The immune system is an active component of bone repair. Mast cells influence the recruitment of macrophages, osteoclasts and blood vessels into the repair tissue. We hypothesized that if mast cells and other immune cells are sensitized to recognize broken bone, they will mount an increased response to subsequent fractures that may be translated into enhanced healing. To test this, we created a bone defect on the left leg of anesthetized mice and 2 weeks later, a second one on the right leg. Bone repair in the right legs was then compared to control mice that underwent the creation of bilateral window bone defects at the same time. Mice were euthanized at 14 and 56 days. Mineralized tissue quantity and morphometric parameters were assessed using micro-CT and histology. The activity of osteoblasts, osteoclasts, vascular endothelial cells, mast cells, and macrophages was evaluated using histochemistry. Our main findings were (1) no significant differences in the amount of bone produced at 14- or 56 days post-operative between groups; (2) mice exposed to subsequent fractures showed significantly better bone morphometric parameters after 56 days post-operative; and (3) significant increases in the content of blood vessels, osteoclasts, and the number of macrophages in the subsequent fracture group. Our results provide strong evidence that a transient increase in the inflammatory state of a healing injury promotes faster bone remodelling and increased neo-angiogenesis. This phenomenon is also characterized by changes in mast cell and macrophage content that translate into more active recruitment of mesenchymal stromal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose L Ramirez-GarciaLuna
- Bone Engineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
| | - Karla Rangel-Berridi
- Bone Engineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Biofabrication and Bioengineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
| | - Ore-Oluwa Olasubulumi
- Bone Engineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
| | - Derek H Rosenzweig
- Biofabrication and Bioengineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
| | - Janet E Henderson
- Bone Engineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
- Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
| | - Rahul Gawri
- Regenerative Orthopaedics and Innovation Laboratory, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute-McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada.
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada.
| | - Paul A Martineau
- Bone Engineering Labs, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute, McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Regenerative Orthopaedics and Innovation Laboratory, Injury, Repair & Recovery Program, Research Institute-McGill University Health Centre, 1650 Cedar Ave., Montreal, QC, H3G 1A4, Canada
- Experimental Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3605 Rue de la Montagne, Montreal, QC, H3G 2M1, Canada
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Atila D, Chen CY, Lin CP, Lee YL, Hasirci V, Tezcaner A, Lin FH. In vitro evaluation of injectable Tideglusib-loaded hyaluronic acid hydrogels incorporated with Rg1-loaded chitosan microspheres for vital pulp regeneration. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 278:118976. [PMID: 34973790 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Injectable systems receive attention in endodontics due to the complicated and irregular anatomical structure of root canals. Here, injectable Tideglusib (Td)-loaded hyaluronic acid hydrogels (HAH) incorporated with Rg1-loaded chitosan microspheres (CSM) were developed for vital pulp regeneration, providing release of Td and Rg1 to trigger odontoblastic differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSC) by Td and vascularization of pulp by Rg1. The optimal concentrations were determined as 90 nM and 50 μg/mL for Td and Rg1, and loaded in HA and CSM in HAH, respectively. Odontogenic (COL1A1, ALP, OCN, Axin-2, DSPP, and DMP1) and angiogenic (VEGFA, VEGFR2, and eNOS) differentiation of DPSC cultured in the presence of hydrogels was shown at gene expression level. Our results suggest that our injectable hydrogel formulation has potential to improve strategies for vital pulp regeneration. In vivo evaluations are needed to test the feasibility and potential of these hydrogels for vital pulp regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Atila
- Department of Engineering Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey; Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Nanomedicine (IBEN), National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Yun Chen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences & Engineering, National Central University, Taoyuan City 320317, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Pin Lin
- School of Dentistry and Graduate Institute of Clinical Dentistry, National Taiwan University and Hospital, Taipei 106216, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Ling Lee
- School of Dentistry and Graduate Institute of Clinical Dentistry, National Taiwan University and Hospital, Taipei 106216, Taiwan
| | - Vasif Hasirci
- Department of Medical Engineering, Acibadem Mehmet Ali Aydinlar University, Istanbul 34758, Turkey; BIOMATEN, CoE in Biomaterials & Tissue Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Ayşen Tezcaner
- Department of Engineering Sciences, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey; BIOMATEN, CoE in Biomaterials & Tissue Engineering, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey.
| | - Feng-Huei Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering & Nanomedicine (IBEN), National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli 35053, Taiwan; Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine & College of Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106216, Taiwan.
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Wang B, Khan S, Wang P, Wang X, Liu Y, Chen J, Tu X. A Highly Selective GSK-3β Inhibitor CHIR99021 Promotes Osteogenesis by Activating Canonical and Autophagy-Mediated Wnt Signaling. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:926622. [PMID: 35923616 PMCID: PMC9339598 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.926622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery and application of small molecules is one of the practical strategies of safe osteogenic drugs. The small molecule CHIR99021 (C91) is a highly specific, safe, and most effective GSK-3β Inhibitor. This study found that it efficiently activates the canonical Wnt signaling of bone marrow stromal cell ST2 and promotes osteoblast differentiation and mineralization. C91 increases the production and biochemical activity of osteoblast marker alkaline phosphatase, the expression of osteoblast marker genes Alpl, Bglap, Runx2, and Sp7, and the formation of bone nodules. Triptonide is a transcription inhibitor of Wnt target gene, which diminishes C91-induced osteoblast differentiation in a dose-dependent manner. Meanwhile, C91 also induces autophagy through autophagosome formation and conversion of autophagy biomarker LC-3I into LC-3II. Autophagy inhibitor 3MA partially reduces C91-induced osteoblast differentiation and mineralization; autophagy inducer Rapamycin increases the expression of β-catenin to promote osteogenic differentiation, but cannot alleviate the inhibition of Triptonide on C91-induced osteogenic differentiation, indicating the crosstalk of canonical Wnt signaling and autophagy regulates C91-induced osteoblast differentiation. Furthermore, in order to simulate the in vivo detection of C91 in osteogenesis process, we made a C91 slow-release hydrogel with our newly established polycaprolactone and cell-integrated 3D printing system (PCCI3D module). The sustained release C91 promotes the differentiation and mineralization of ST2 cells. C91 can also enhance the proliferative activity of ST2 cells. The release rate of C91 from hydrogel gradually decreases within 7 days. During this period, the C91 is released by 83.0% and the cell viability maintained at 96.4%. Therefore, the small molecule Wnt agonist C91 promotes osteogenesis through caonical and autophagy-mediated Wnt signaling pathway with an option for translational application.
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Augat P, Simpson H. Enhancement of Fracture Healing. Injury 2021; 52 Suppl 2:S1-S2. [PMID: 34099104 DOI: 10.1016/j.injury.2021.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Augat
- Institute for Biomechanics, Berufsgenossenschaftliche Unfallklinik Murnau, Germany & Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Austria.
| | - Hamish Simpson
- Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, University of Edinburgh, Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh, 51 Little France Crescent, Old Dalkeith Road, Edinburgh, EH16 4SA, UK
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