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Sardana S, Singh KP, Saminathan M, Vineetha S, Panda S, Dinesh M, Maity M, Varshney R, Sulabh S, Sahoo M, Dutt T. Effect of inhibition of Toll-like receptor 3 signaling on pathogenesis of rabies virus in mouse model. Acta Trop 2022; 234:106589. [PMID: 35809612 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic viral disease with inevitably fatal outcome. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) could sense dsRNA viral infections, and implicated in pathogenesis of rabies and Negri bodies (NBs) formation. Present study was undertaken to elucidate the role of TLR3 in pathogenesis, NBs formation, and therapeutic potential of blocking TLR3/dsRNA interaction in rabies infection. Young Swiss albino mice were infected with 100 LD50 of street rabies virus (SRABV) intracerebrally (i/c) on day 0 and treated with 30 μg of CU CPT 4a (selective TLR3 inhibitor) i/c on 0, 3 and 5 days post-infection (DPI). Three mice each were sacrificed at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, and 13 DPI to study sequential pathological consequences through histopathology, Seller's staining, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, TUNEL assay, flow cytometry, and viral and cytokine genes quantification by real-time PCR. CU CPT 4a inhibited TLR3 expression resulted in delayed development and decreased intensity of clinical signs and pathological lesions, low viral load, significantly reduced NBs formation, and increased survival time in SRABV-infected mice. These parameters suggested that TLR3 did influence the SRABV replication and NBs formation. Inhibition of TLR3 led to decreased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and interferons indicated an anti-inflammatory effect of CU CPT 4a during SRABV infection. Further, TLR3-inhibited group revealed normal CD4+/CD8+ T-cells ratio with less TUNEL-positive apoptotic cells indicated that immune cell kinetics are not affected during TLR3-inhibition. SRABV-infected and mock-treated mice were developed severe clinical signs and histopathological lesions, more NBs formation, high viral load, increased pro-inflammatory cytokines expression in brain, which were correlated with higher expression levels of TLR3. In conclusion, these data suggested that TLR3/dsRNA signaling pathway could play critical role in pathogenesis of SRABV infection in vivo and opens up new avenues of therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumit Sardana
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Karam Pal Singh
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Mani Saminathan
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Sobharani Vineetha
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Shibani Panda
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Murali Dinesh
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Madhulina Maity
- Centre for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Rajat Varshney
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Barkachha, Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Sourabh Sulabh
- Department of Animal Science, Kazi Nazrul University, Asansol, West Bengal, India
| | - Monalisa Sahoo
- ICAR- International Centre for Foot and Mouth Disease, Khordha, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Triveni Dutt
- Director, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Santos LC, Dos Anjos Cordeiro JM, da Silva Santana L, Santos BR, Barbosa EM, da Silva TQM, Corrêa JMX, Niella RV, Lavor MSL, da Silva EB, de Melo Ocarino N, Serakides R, Silva JF. Kisspeptin/Kiss1r system and angiogenic and immunological mediators at the maternal-fetal interface of domestic cats. Biol Reprod 2021; 105:217-231. [PMID: 33774655 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioab061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The Kisspeptin/Kiss1r system is a key regulator of reproduction by stimulating gonadotrophin-releasing hormone and luteinizing hormone release, and in vitro studies have shown that Kisspeptin can modulate angiogenesis and immune function, factors that are also essential for reproduction However, there are no studies on the expression of Kisspeptin/Kiss1r at the maternal-fetal interface in domestic cats and its relationship with angiogenic and immunological mediators. Thus, our objective was to evaluate the spatiotemporal expression profile of Kisspeptin/Kiss1r and angiogenic and immunological mediators in the uterus and placenta of domestic cats during pregnancy. Uterus and placenta samples were collected from cats in mid pregnancy (N = 6) and late pregnancy (N = 6), in addition to uterus from non-pregnant cats in diestrus (N = 7), to evaluate protein and gene expression of kisspeptin (Kiss1), kisspeptin receptor (Kiss1r), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), tyrosine kinase receptor (Flk-1), placental growth factor (PLGF), interferon gamma (INFγ), migration inhibiting factor (MIF), tumor necrosis factor (TNFα), interleukins (IL6 and IL10) by immunohistochemistry and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Pregnancy increased the uterine expression of Kiss1 and Kiss1r, especially at the late pregnancy, in addition to upregulating INFy, MIF, Vegf, Il10, and Tnf and downregulating Plgf. Higher placental expression of Kiss1r and Plgf mRNA occurred at the late pregnancy, while the expression of Kiss1, VEGF, Flk-1, INFy, TNFα, Il6, and IL10 was higher in the mid of pregnancy. A positive correlation between Kiss1 and Tnf was observed in the placenta, while Kiss1r had a negative correlation with Infγ, Il6, and Il10. The findings reveal that Kisspeptin/Kiss1r and angiogenic and immunological mediators at the maternal-fetal interface of pregnant cat have a gene correlation and are modulated by the gestational age. These data suggest possible functional links of Kisspeptin in placental angiogenesis and immunology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciano Cardoso Santos
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Jeane Martinha Dos Anjos Cordeiro
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Larissa da Silva Santana
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Bianca Reis Santos
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Erikles Macêdo Barbosa
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Thayná Queiroz Menezes da Silva
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Janaina Maria Xavier Corrêa
- Hospital Veterinario, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Raquel Viera Niella
- Hospital Veterinario, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Mário Sergio Lima Lavor
- Hospital Veterinario, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Elisângela Barboza da Silva
- Hospital Veterinario, Departamento de Ciencias Agrarias e Ambientais, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
| | - Natália de Melo Ocarino
- Departamento de Clinica e Cirurgia Veterinarias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Rogéria Serakides
- Departamento de Clinica e Cirurgia Veterinarias, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Juneo Freitas Silva
- Centro de Microscopia Eletronica, Departamento de Ciencias Biologicas, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Campus Soane Nazare de Andrade, Ilheus, Brazil
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Dobrzyn K, Kiezun M, Szeszko K, Kisielewska K, Rytelewska E, Gudelska M, Zaobidna E, Bors K, Kopij G, Szymanska K, Kaminska B, Kaminski T, Smolinska N. Orexin B affects the transcriptome of incubated in vitro porcine endometrial explants from the early-implantation period. Reprod Domest Anim 2020; 56:239-253. [PMID: 32402144 DOI: 10.1111/rda.13700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
This study determined the effect of orexin B (OXB) on the porcine endometrial transcriptome during the embryo attachment phase. Microarray analyses of gene ontology (GO), biological pathways, networks and differentially expressed genes (DEG) were performed. Orexin B influenced the expression of 887 genes (fold change > 1.2; p < .05): 620 genes were up-regulated, and 267 were down-regulated. The analysis of the relationship between DEG revealed that OXB interacts with genes linked with processes such as cell hormone binding, regulation of hormone levels, lipid transport, steroid metabolic processes, the apoptotic signalling pathway and the acute inflammatory response, which are pivotal for reproductive success. Orexin B played a bivalent role in the early-pregnant uterus by limiting the pregnancy outcome, promoting embryo development, suppressing the immune system and, consequently, preventing embryo rejection. These findings suggest that OXB could be responsible for the proper course of gestation by adapting litter size to the metabolic status of the maternal organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamil Dobrzyn
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Marta Kiezun
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Karol Szeszko
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kisielewska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Edyta Rytelewska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Marlena Gudelska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Ewa Zaobidna
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Kinga Bors
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Kopij
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Karolina Szymanska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Barbara Kaminska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Kaminski
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
| | - Nina Smolinska
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn, Poland
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Salem ML, El-Naggar SA, Mobasher MA, Elgharabawy RM. The Toll-Like Receptor 3 Agonist Polyriboinosinic Polyribocytidylic Acid Increases the Numbers of NK Cells with Distinct Phenotype in the Liver of B6 Mice. J Immunol Res 2020; 2020:2489407. [PMID: 32211442 PMCID: PMC7077049 DOI: 10.1155/2020/2489407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the activating factors of the cells of the innate immune system is the agonists of toll-like receptors (TLRs). Our earlier publications detailed how poly(I:C), a TLR3 agonist, elevates the NK cell population and the associated antigen-specific CD8+ T cell responses. This study involved a single treatment of the B6 mice with poly(I:C) intraperitoneally. To perform a detailed phenotypic analysis, mononuclear cells were prepared from each of the liver, peripheral blood, and spleen. These cells were then examined for their NK cell population by flow cytometric analysis following cell staining with indicated antibodies. The findings of the study showed that the NK cell population of the liver with an NK1.1highCD11bhighCD11chigh B220+Ly6G- phenotype was elevated following the treatment with poly(I:C). In the absence of CD11b molecule (CR3-/- mice), poly(I:C) can still increase the remained numbers of NK cells with NK1.1+CD11b- and NK1.1+Ly6G- phenotypes in the liver while their numbers in the blood decrease. After the treatment with anti-AGM1 Ab, which induced depletion of NK1.1+CD11b+ cells and partial depletion of CD3+NK1.1+ and NK1.1+CD11b- cell populations, poly(I:C) normalized the partial decreases in the numbers of NK cells concomitant with increased numbers of NK1.1-CD11b+ cell population in both liver and blood. Regarding mice with a TLR3-/- phenotype, their injection with poly(I:C) resulted in the partial elevation in the NK cell population as compared to wild-type B6 mice. To summarise, the TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) results in the elevation of a subset of liver NK cells expressing the two myeloid markers CD11c and CD11b. The effect of poly(I:C) on NK cells is partially dependent on TLR3 and independent of the presence of CD11b.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed L. Salem
- 1Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
- 2Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, New Tanta University Teaching Hospital, Tanta University, Egypt
| | - Sabry A. El-Naggar
- 1Immunology and Biotechnology Unit, Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
- 2Center of Excellence in Cancer Research, New Tanta University Teaching Hospital, Tanta University, Egypt
| | - Maysa A. Mobasher
- 3Biochemistry Division, Department of Pathology, College of Medicine, Jouf University, Sakakah, Saudi Arabia
- 4Department of Clinical Pathology, El Ahrar Educational Hospital, Ministry of Health, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Rehab M. Elgharabawy
- 5Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Qassim University, Buraydah, Saudi Arabia
- 6Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
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Lu X, Cui J, Cui L, Luo Q, Cao Q, Yuan W, Zhang H. The effects of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell transplantation on endometrial receptivity are associated with Th1/Th2 balance change and uNK cell expression of uterine in autoimmune premature ovarian failure mice. Stem Cell Res Ther 2019; 10:214. [PMID: 31331391 PMCID: PMC6647296 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-019-1313-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background To explore the mechanism of human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell (hUMSC) transplantation to improve ovarian function and the endometrial receptivity in autoimmune premature ovarian failure (POF) mice. Methods The POF model was established in mice treated with zona pellucida 3 polypeptide fragment (zona pellucida 3, ZP3). The hUMSCs were transplanted into the POF mice through tail vein injection. Following the transplantation, the serum hormone levels of follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), estrogen (E2), progesterone (P), γ-interferon (IFN-γ), interleukin-2 (IL-2), and interleukin-4 (IL-4) were evaluated by ELISA analysis. Morphological changes of ovarian and uterus tissues were examined by HE staining and immunohistochemistry. The expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines of T cells in spleen and CD56+CD16− cells (uterine natural killer cells, uNK cells) in uterine was measured by flow cytometry (FCM) and immunohistochemistry. The expression of HOXA10 in uterine endometrium was examined by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR analysis. The pinopodes of epithelial cells in uterine endometrium were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Results Following hUMSC transplantation, the serum levels of E2, P, and IL-4 were increased but FSH, IFN-γ, and IL-2 levels were decreased in POF mice. Also, the transplantation of hUMSCs caused an increase in total number of healthy follicles and decrease of atresia follicles. The expression of HOXA10 gene was significantly increased but the CD56+CD16− uNK cells decreased in the endometrium of uterine. The ratio of Th1/Th2 cytokines was also significantly decreased. Conclusion The data suggest that the recovery of ovarian function and endometrial receptivity in POF mice was regulated by the balance of Th1/Th2 cytokines and expression of uNK cells in the endometrium following hUMSC transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xueyan Lu
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China.,College of Basic Medicine & Institute of Reproductive Diseases, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China
| | - Jingjing Cui
- The Affiliated Hospital of Binzhou Medical University, Binzhou, 256600, Shandong, China
| | - Linlu Cui
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China.,College of Basic Medicine & Institute of Reproductive Diseases, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China
| | - Qianqian Luo
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China.,College of Basic Medicine & Institute of Reproductive Diseases, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China
| | - Qizhi Cao
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China
| | - Wendan Yuan
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China.
| | - Hongqin Zhang
- College of Basic Medicine, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China. .,College of Basic Medicine & Institute of Reproductive Diseases, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai, 264003, Shandong, China.
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Souza CA, Silva JF, Silva CL, Ocarino NM, Serakides R. Thyroid hormones affect decidualization and angiogenesis in the decidua and metrial gland of rats. PESQUISA VETERINARIA BRASILEIRA 2017. [DOI: 10.1590/s0100-736x2017000900017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of thyroid hormone on the decidua and metrial gland of rats and to examine the expression of angiogenic factors. 72 adult, female rats were divided into hypothyroid, T4-treated2, and control groups. At 10, 14 and 19 days of gestation (DG), the decidua and metrial gland were collected for histomorphometric and immunohistochemical evaluation of the expression of VEGF, Flk-1 and Tie-2. Hypothyroidism reduced the area of the decidua at 10 and 19 DG. Furthermore, VEGF was increased at 10 and 14 DG, and Flk-1 only at 14 DG, but both was reduced at 19 DG in the metrial gland without significantly changing the area occupied by blood vessels. Rats treated with T4 showed an increase in the decidua blood vessels at 10 and 19 DG. However, at 10 DG, excess T4 resulted in increased of Flk-1 in the decidua and metrial gland. Hypothyroidism increased the Tie-2 at 10 and 19 DG in the decidua and metrial gland. In conclusion, hypothyroidism reduces the area of the decidua and increases the expression of VEGF, Tie-2 and Flk-1. The excess of T4 promotes tissue angiogenesis by increasing the number of vessels in the decidua because of the increased expression of Flk-1.
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Bhanothu V, Lakshmi V, Theophilus JP, Rozati R, Badhini P, Vijayalaxmi B. Investigation of Toll-Like Receptor-2 (2258G/A) and Interferon Gamma (+874T/A) Gene Polymorphisms among Infertile Women with Female Genital Tuberculosis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0130273. [PMID: 26114934 PMCID: PMC4483232 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0130273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) coordinate with a diverse array of cellular programs through the transcriptional regulation of immunologically relevant genes and play an important role in immune system, reproductive physiology and basic pathology. Alterations in the functions of TLR2 2258G (guanine)/ A, IFN-γ (+874T/A) and signalling molecules that result from polymorphisms are often associated with susceptibility or resistance, which may, in turn, establish the innate host response to various infectious diseases. Presently, we proposed to investigate the risk of common single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) of TLR2 and IFN-γ genes, for their effect on infertility in women with female genital tuberculosis (FGTB) and healthy women as controls. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS Genotyping of TLR2 and IFN-γ gene polymorphisms was performed by amplification refractory mutation system multi-gene/multi-primer polymerase chain reaction followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism in 175 FGTB patients and 100 healthy control women (HCW). The TLR2 polymorphism [adenine (A) allele] was observed in 57.7 and 58.0% of FGTB patients and HCW, respectively. The IFN-γ (+874T/A) polymorphism (A allele) was significant in 74.3 and 71.0% of FGTB patients and HCW, respectively, while the odds ratios for the AA and TA genotypes for predisposition of FGTB were found to be 0.304 and 1.650 in HCW, respectively. The SNP of TLR2 was not associated with FGTB but the SNP of IFN-γ was found to be associated with mycobacteria infections and to induce infertility. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE At present, we hypothesize that infertile women with FGTB and HCW without tuberculosis (TB) have identical frequency of TLR variants, which may be adequate in the production of IFN-γ in response to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Thus, the study appears to be the first of its kind reporting a mutation in the IFN-γ gene [+874 T (thymine) to A] responsible for susceptibility to TB infections and further inducing infertility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkanna Bhanothu
- Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Vemu Lakshmi
- Department of Microbiology, Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Jane P. Theophilus
- Department of Zoology, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Roya Rozati
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Owaisi Hospital & Research Centre, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Prabhakar Badhini
- Department of Genetics, University College of Science, Osmania University, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
| | - Boda Vijayalaxmi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Owaisi Hospital & Research Centre, Hyderabad, Telangana State, India
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Montazeri M, Sanchez-Lopez JA, Caballero I, Maslehat Lay N, Elliott S, López-Martín S, Yáñez-Mó M, Fazeli A. Activation of Toll-like receptor 3 reduces actin polymerization and adhesion molecule expression in endometrial cells, a potential mechanism for viral-induced implantation failure. Hum Reprod 2015; 30:893-905. [PMID: 25605704 DOI: 10.1093/humrep/deu359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
STUDY QUESTION Does activation of endometrial Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR 3) affect cell receptivity to trophoblast adhesion? SUMMARY ANSWER TLR 3 activation in vitro reduces the attachment of trophoblast cells to endometrial cells by altering the cell cytoskeleton and reducing the expression of adhesion molecules in human endometrial cells. WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY It is well documented that the presence of an infection at the time of implantation can lead to implantation failure. The female reproductive tract recognizes invading micro-organisms through the innate pathogen recognition receptors such as the TLRs. STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION Poly I:C was used as a TLR 3-specific ligand and endometrial cells were either treated or not with Poly I:C (treated versus control) in vitro. The experiments were performed in three replicates on three separate days. PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS An in vitro assay was developed using RL95-2 (a human endometrial cell line) and JAr (a human trophoblast cell line) cells. Initially, the percentage of attached JAr spheroids to RL95-2 was measured in response to TLR 3 activation. Next, actin polymerization in RL95-2 cells was assessed in response to TLR 2/6, 3 and 5 activation. Phalloidin was used to assess the mean fluorescence intensity of F-actin by flow cytometry or confocal microscopy. Secondly, the influence of TLR 2/6, 3 and 5 activation on the expression of cluster of differentiation 98 (CD98) and β3 integrin was determined. To further understand through which pathways the TLR 3-induced alterations occur, inhibitors were applied for Toll/interleukin-1 receptor domain-containing adaptor inducing interferon-beta (TRIF), myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MYD88), mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) and nuclear factor pathways. MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE We observed that stimulation of TLR 3 in endometrial cells with different concentrations of Poly I:C led to a reduction in the percentage of trophoblasts attached to the endometrial cells in a dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05). This decrease was consistent in the Poly I:C treated group regardless of the co-incubation time (P < 0.05). In addition, our results demonstrated that actin polymerization and CD98 expression significantly decreased only in response to TLR 3 activation (P < 0.05). Activation of endometrial cells with TLR 2/6, 3 and 5 significantly reduced β3 integrin expression (P < 0.05). These alterations were shown to work via MYD88-MAPK pathways (P < 0.05). LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION This study has been performed in vitro. Future in vivo studies will be required in order to confirm our data. WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS This is a novel discovery which extends our current knowledge concerning diagnosis and treatment of viral-induced infertility cases. STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS This research was supported by the COST Action FA1201 (GEMINI) by granting a Short Term Scientific Mission and the Instituto de Salud Carlos III by granting Grant PI11/01645. The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Montazeri
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
| | - J A Sanchez-Lopez
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
| | - I Caballero
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK UMR1282 ISP, INRA, Nouzilly, France
| | - N Maslehat Lay
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
| | - S Elliott
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
| | - S López-Martín
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, C/Maestro Amadeo Vives 2, 28009 Madrid, Spain
| | - M Yáñez-Mó
- Unidad de Investigación, Hospital Santa Cristina, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Princesa, C/Maestro Amadeo Vives 2, 28009 Madrid, Spain
| | - A Fazeli
- Academic Unit of Reproductive and Developmental Medicine, The University of Sheffield, Level 4, Jessop Wing, Tree Root Walk, Sheffield S10 2SF, UK
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9
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Silva JF, Ocarino NM, Serakides R. Maternal thyroid dysfunction affects placental profile of inflammatory mediators and the intrauterine trophoblast migration kinetics. Reproduction 2014; 147:803-16. [PMID: 24534949 DOI: 10.1530/rep-13-0374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to evaluate the gene and immunohistochemical expression of inflammatory mediators involved in the immune activity and the intrauterine trophoblast migration of the placentas in hypothyroid and L-thyroxine (L-T4)-treated rats. A total of 144 adult female rats were divided equally into hypothyroid, l-T4-treated, and euthyroid (control) groups. Hypothyroidism was induced by daily administration of propylthiouracil. Rats were killed at 0, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19 days of gestation. We evaluated the depth of interstitial and endovascular intrauterine trophoblast invasion and the immunohistochemical expression of interferon γ (INFy), migration inhibitory factor (MIF), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2 (iNOS)). The gene expression of Toll-like receptor 2 (Tlr2) and Tlr4, Infy, Mif, tumor necrosis factor (Tnf (Tnfα)), Il10, Nos2, matrix metalloproteinase 2 (Mmp2) and Mmp9, and placental leptin was also measured in placental disks by real-time RT-PCR. The data were analyzed using an Student-Newman-Keuls (SNK) test. Hypothyroidism reduced the endovascular and interstitial trophoblast migration, and the expression of TLR4, INFy, MIF, interleukin 10 (IL10), NOS2, MMP2 and MMP9, and placental leptin, while increased the expression of TLR2 (P<0.05). T4-treated rats not only increased the expression of IL10 and NOS2 but also reduced the expression of TNF and MIF at 10 days of gestation (P<0.05). However, at 19 days of gestation, expression of INFy and MIF was increased in T4-treated group (P<0.05). Excess of T4 also increased the gene expression of Mmp2 at 10 days of gestation (P<0.05), but reduced the endovascular trophoblast migration at 18 days of gestation (P<0.05). Hypothyroidism and excess of T4 differentially affect the immune profile and the intrauterine trophoblast migration of the placenta, and these effects are dependent on the gestational period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juneo Freitas Silva
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia VeterináriaEscola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Natália Melo Ocarino
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia VeterináriaEscola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Rogéria Serakides
- Departamento de Clínica e Cirurgia VeterináriaEscola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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10
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Hsiao EY, Patterson PH. Placental regulation of maternal-fetal interactions and brain development. Dev Neurobiol 2012; 72:1317-26. [PMID: 22753006 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2012] [Revised: 06/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/19/2012] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
A variety prenatal insults are associated with the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia, autism and cerebral palsy. While the precise mechanisms underlying how transient gestational challenges can lead to later life dysfunctions are largely unknown, the placenta is likely to play a key role. The literal interface between maternal and fetal cells resides in the placenta, and disruptions to the maternal or intrauterine environment are necessarily conveyed to the developing embryo via the placenta. Placental cells bear the responsibility of promoting maternal tolerance of the semiallogeneic fetus and regulating selective permeability of nutrients, gases, and antibodies, while still providing physiological protection of the embryo from adversity. The placenta's critical role in modulating immune protection and the availability of nutrients and endocrine factors to the offspring implicates its involvement in autoimmunity, growth restriction and hypoxia, all factors associated with the development of neurological complications. In this review, we summarize primary maternal-fetal interactions that occur in the placenta and describe pathways by which maternal insults can impair these processes and disrupt fetal brain development. We also review emerging evidence for placental dysfunction in the prenatal programming of neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine Y Hsiao
- Biology Division, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA.
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11
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12
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Qiu S, Fang Z, Wu D, Lin Y, Che L. Tryptophan Supplements Promote Pregnancy Success in Mice Challenged with Pseudorabies Virus (PRV) by Regulating the Expression of Systemic Cytokines, Immunoglobulins, PRV-Specific Protein Profiles, and Toll-Like Receptors. J Med Food 2011; 14:857-65. [DOI: 10.1089/jmf.2010.1146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shixiu Qiu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Resistance Nutrition of the Ministry of Education of China, Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
| | - Zhengfeng Fang
- Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Resistance Nutrition of the Ministry of Education of China, Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
| | - De Wu
- Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Resistance Nutrition of the Ministry of Education of China, Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
| | - Yan Lin
- Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Resistance Nutrition of the Ministry of Education of China, Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
| | - Lianqiang Che
- Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Resistance Nutrition of the Ministry of Education of China, Animal Nutrition Institute, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, China
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13
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Yang Z, Kong B, Mosser DM, Zhang X. TLRs, macrophages, and NK cells: our understandings of their functions in uterus and ovary. Int Immunopharmacol 2011; 11:1442-50. [PMID: 21586343 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.04.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2011] [Revised: 04/09/2011] [Accepted: 04/30/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Inflammation involves multiple changes in many aspects of immune system. Interactions between immune system and female reproductive system strongly impact fertility and reproductive health in general. Many normal events of female reproduction system including ovulation, menstruation, implantation and labor onset are considered as inflammatory process. Emerging evidence reveals that three components of immune system that are critical to initiate and resolve inflammation, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), macrophages, and natural killer (NK) cells, play important roles not only to provide protection against infections by exogenous pathogens but also to regulate essential functions of uterus and ovary. This review will briefly summarize our understanding of the functions of TLRs, macrophages and NK cells in uterus and ovary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyan Yang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Qilu Hospital, Shandong University, 107 Wenhuaxi Road, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
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14
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Hsiao EY, Patterson PH. Activation of the maternal immune system induces endocrine changes in the placenta via IL-6. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:604-15. [PMID: 21195166 PMCID: PMC3081363 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Activation of the maternal immune system in rodent models sets in motion a cascade of molecular pathways that ultimately result in autism- and schizophrenia-related behaviors in offspring. The finding that interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a crucial mediator of these effects led us to examine the mechanism by which this cytokine influences fetal development in vivo. Here we focus on the placenta as the site of direct interaction between mother and fetus and as a principal modulator of fetal development. We find that maternal immune activation (MIA) with a viral mimic, synthetic double-stranded RNA (poly(I:C)), increases IL-6 mRNA as well as maternally-derived IL-6 protein in the placenta. Placentas from MIA mothers exhibit increases in CD69+ decidual macrophages, granulocytes and uterine NK cells, indicating elevated early immune activation. Maternally-derived IL-6 mediates activation of the JAK/STAT3 pathway specifically in the spongiotrophoblast layer of the placenta, which results in expression of acute phase genes. Importantly, this parallels an IL-6-dependent disruption of the growth hormone-insulin-like growth factor (GH-IGF) axis that is characterized by decreased GH, IGFI and IGFBP3 levels. In addition, we observe an IL-6-dependent induction in pro-lactin-like protein-K (PLP-K) expression as well as MIA-related alterations in other placental endocrine factors. Together, these IL-6-mediated effects of MIA on the placenta represent an indirect mechanism by which MIA can alter fetal development.
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15
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Zhang J, Chen Z, Smith GN, Croy BA. Natural killer cell-triggered vascular transformation: maternal care before birth? Cell Mol Immunol 2011; 8:1-11. [PMID: 20711229 PMCID: PMC3079746 DOI: 10.1038/cmi.2010.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2010] [Revised: 06/15/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are found in lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs. In addition to important roles in immune surveillance, some NK cells contribute to angiogenesis and circulatory regulation. The uterus of early pregnancy is a non-lymphoid organ enriched in NK cells that are specifically recruited to placental attachment sites. In species with invasive hemochorial placentation, these uterine natural killer (uNK) cells, via secretion of cytokines, chemokines, mucins, enzymes and angiogenic growth factors, contribute to the physiological change of mesometrial endometrium into the unique stromal environment called decidua basalis. In humans, uNK cells have the phenotype CD56(bright)CD16(dim) and they appear in great abundance in the late secretory phase of the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy. Gene expression studies indicate that CD56(bright)CD16(dim) uterine and circulating cells are functionally distinct. In humans but not mice or other species with post-implantation decidualization, uNK cells may contribute to blastocyst implantation and are of interest as therapeutic targets in female infertility. Histological and genetic studies in mice first identified triggering of the process of gestation spiral arterial modification as a major uNK cell function, achieved via interferon (IFN)-γ secretion. During spiral arterial modification, branches from the uterine artery that traverse the endometrium/decidua transiently lose their muscular coat and ability to vasoconstrict. The expression of vascular markers changes from arterial to venous as these vessels dilate and become low-resistance, high-volume channels. Full understanding of the vascular interactions of human uNK cells is difficult to obtain because endometrial time-course studies are not possible in pregnant women. Here we briefly review key information concerning uNK cell functions from studies in rodents, summarize highlights concerning human uNK cells and describe our preliminary studies on development of a humanized, pregnant mouse model for in vivo investigations of human uNK cell functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhong Zhang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
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16
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Manoussakis MN, Spachidou MP, Maratheftis CI. Salivary epithelial cells from Sjogren's syndrome patients are highly sensitive to anoikis induced by TLR-3 ligation. J Autoimmun 2010; 35:212-8. [PMID: 20685081 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2010.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In certain types of cells, Toll-like receptor-3 (TLR-3) ligation by viral dsRNA induces apoptotic death, likely engaged into the elimination of virus-infected cells. We have previously shown that TLR-3 ligation on cultured non-neoplastic salivary gland epithelial cells (SGEC) with polyI:C (a synthetic analogue of viral dsRNA) results in the induction of surface immunoactive molecules, however, the pro-apoptotic effect of such signaling has not been addressed. In this study, polyI:C-treated SGEC were found to suffer severe detachment from substratum and subsequent apoptosis, a phenomenon suggestive of anoikis or anoikia (detachment-induced apoptosis). PolyI:C-induced anoikis in SGEC was associated with the upregulation of the pro-apoptotic Bmf, BimEL and Bax and the down-regulation of the pro-survival Bcl-2 (real-time PCR analyses). Finally, the comparative analysis of SGEC lines derived from primary Sjogren's syndrome (SS) patients (SS-SGEC) and non-SS controls had revealed that SS-SGEC are particularly susceptible to TLR-3-induced anoikis, as it was triggered by suboptimally low concentrations of polyI:C. This finding correlated with significantly higher constitutive surface TLR-3 expression by SS-SGEC, a feature indicative of their intrinsic activation status. In conclusion, TLR-3 signaling pathway in the salivary epithelium appears to extend beyond the induction of innate immune responses and to involve the activation of programmed-cell death via anoikis. In the same context, the increased vulnerability of SS-SGEC to the injurious effect of TLR-3 ligation is likely associated with the intrinsic activation processes that apparently operate in the epithelia of SS patients, and a feature of key pathogenetic importance for the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menelaos N Manoussakis
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Department of Pathophysiology, Medical School, National University of Athens, Greece.
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17
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Weiss ID, Wald O, Wald H, Beider K, Abraham M, Galun E, Nagler A, Peled A. IFN-γ Treatment at Early Stages of Influenza Virus Infection Protects Mice from Death in a NK Cell-Dependent Manner. J Interferon Cytokine Res 2010; 30:439-49. [DOI: 10.1089/jir.2009.0084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ido D. Weiss
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ori Wald
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hanna Wald
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Katia Beider
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Michal Abraham
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Eithan Galun
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Arnon Nagler
- Bone Marrow Transplantation Department, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Amnon Peled
- Goldyne Savad Institute of Gene Therapy, Hadassah University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel
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18
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Girling JE, Hedger MP. Toll‐like receptors in the gonads and reproductive tract: emerging roles in reproductive physiology and pathology. Immunol Cell Biol 2007; 85:481-9. [PMID: 17592495 DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between the immune system and reproductive system have important consequences for fertility and reproductive health in general. There is increasing evidence that many of the interactions between the immune and reproductive systems involve the Toll-like receptors (TLRs). While there is no doubt that TLRs are important in providing protection against infection in the reproductive tract, there is increasing evidence for the involvement of TLRs in more basic pathology and physiology of reproduction. In the female, TLRs have been implicated in critical aspects of ovarian, endometrial and placental function, as well as in ovarian cancer, pelvic inflammatory disease, intrauterine growth restriction, pre-eclampsia and preterm birth. In the male, TLRs appear to play a role in the control of testicular steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis in disease and, potentially, during normal function, as well. Recent studies also have begun to highlight the role of various TLRs in the aetiology of prostatitis and prostatic cancer. Given the nascent state of knowledge concerning this important area, it is clear that more studies are needed, which should provide valuable new insights into the biology of the TLRs and reproductive function in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane E Girling
- Centre for Women's Health Research, Monash Institute of Medical Research, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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