Anti-arthritic effect of ginsenoside Rb1 on collagen induced arthritis in mice

Impact of ginsenoside Rb1 on gut microbiome and associated changes in pharmacokinetics in rats

Ginsenoside Rb1 exhibits a wide range of biological activities, and gut microbiota is considered the main metabolic site for Rb1. However, the impact of gut microbiota on the pharmacokinetics of Rb1 are still uncertain. In this study, we investigated the gut microbiome changes and the pharmacokinetics after a 30 d Rb1 intervention. Results reveal that the systemic exposure and metabolic clearance rate of Rb1 and Rd were substantially affected after orally supplementing Rb1 (60 mg/kg) to rats. Significant increase in the relative abundance of Bacteroides cellulosilyticus in gut microbiota and specific glycoside hydrolase (GH) families, such as GH2, GH92, and GH20 were observed based on microbiome and metagenomic analysis. Moreover, a robust association was identified between the pharmacokinetic parameters of Rb1 and the relative abundance of specific Bacteroides species, and glycoside hydrolase families. Our study demonstrates that Rb1 administration significantly affects the gut microbiome, revealing a complex relationship between B. cellulosilyticus, key GH families, and Rb1 pharmacokinetics.

Host-microbiota interactions in collagen-induced arthritis rats treated with human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell exosome and ginsenoside Rh2

Mesenchymal stem cell exosome (MSCs-exo) is a class of products secreted by mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) that contain various biologically active substances. MSCs-exo is a promising alternative to MSCs due to their lower immunogenicity and lack of ethical constraints. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2) is a hydrolyzed component of the primary active substance of ginsenosides. Rh2 has a variety of pharmacological functions, including anti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, and antioxidant. Studies have demonstrated that gut microbiota and metabolites are critical in developing rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In this study, we constructed a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model in rats. We used MSCs-exo combined with Rh2 to treat CIA rats. To observe the effect of MSCs-exo combined with Rh2 on joint inflammation, rat feces were collected for 16 rRNA amplicon sequencing and untargeted metabolomics analysis. The results showed that the arthritis index score and joint swelling of CIA rats treated with MSCs-exo in combination with Rh2 were significantly lower than those of the model and MSCs-exo alone groups. MSCs-exo and Rh2 significantly ameliorated the disturbed gut microbiota in CIA rats. The regulation of Candidatus_Saccharibacteria and Clostridium_XlVb regulation may be the most critical. Rh2 enhanced the therapeutic effect of MSCs-exo compared with the MSCs-exo -alone group. Furthermore, significant changes in gut metabolites were observed in the CIA rat group, and these differentially altered metabolites may act as messengers for host-microbiota interactions. These differential metabolites were enriched into relevant critical metabolic pathways, revealing possible pathways for host-microbiota interactions.

Developing hydrogels for gene therapy and tissue engineering

Hydrogels are a class of highly absorbent and easily modified polymer materials suitable for use as slow-release carriers for drugs. Gene therapy is highly specific and can overcome the limitations of traditional tissue engineering techniques and has significant advantages in tissue repair. However, therapeutic genes are often affected by cellular barriers and enzyme sensitivity, and carrier loading of therapeutic genes is essential. Therapeutic gene hydrogels can well overcome these difficulties. Moreover, gene-therapeutic hydrogels have made considerable progress. This review summarizes the recent research on carrier gene hydrogels for the treatment of tissue damage through a summary of the most current research frontiers. We initially introduce the classification of hydrogels and their cross-linking methods, followed by a detailed overview of the types and modifications of therapeutic genes, a detailed discussion on the loading of therapeutic genes in hydrogels and their characterization features, a summary of the design of hydrogels for therapeutic gene release, and an overview of their applications in tissue engineering. Finally, we provide comments and look forward to the shortcomings and future directions of hydrogels for gene therapy. We hope that this article will provide researchers in related fields with more comprehensive and systematic strategies for tissue engineering repair and further promote the development of the field of hydrogels for gene therapy.

Cell- and Serum-Derived Proteins Act as DAMPs to Activate RAW 264.7 Macrophage-like Cells on Silicone Implants

Protein adsorption after biomaterial implantation is the first stage of the foreign body response (FBR). However, the source(s) of the adsorbed proteins that lead to damaged associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and induce inflammation have not been fully elucidated. This study examined the effects of different protein sources, cell-derived (from a NIH/3T3 fibroblast cell lysate) and serum-derived (from fetal bovine serum), which were compared to implant-derived proteins (after a 30 min subcutaneous implantation in mice) on activation of RAW 264.7 cells cultured in minimal (serum-free) medium. Both cell-derived and serum-derived protein sources when preadsorbed to either tissue culture polystyrene or medical-grade silicone induced RAW 264.7 cell activation. The combination led to an even higher expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine genes and proteins. Implant-derived proteins on silicone explants induced a rapid inflammatory response that then subsided more quickly and to a greater extent than the studies with in vitro cell-derived or serum-derived protein sources. Proteomic analysis of the implant-derived proteins identified proteins that included cell-derived and serum-derived, but also other proteinaceous sources (e.g., extracellular matrix), suggesting that the latter or nonproteinaceous sources may help to temper the inflammatory response in vivo. These findings indicate that both serum-derived and cell-derived proteins adsorbed to implants can act as DAMPs to drive inflammation in the FBR, but other protein sources may play an important role in controlling inflammation.

Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits ferroptosis to ameliorate hypoxic-ischemic brain damage in neonatal rats

Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy (HIE) is among the leading causes of neonatal mortality, and currently there is no effective treatment. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GsRb1) is one of the principal active components of ginseng, and has protective benefits against oxidative stress, inflammation, hypoxic injury, and so on. However, the role and underlying mechanism of GsRb1 on HIE are unclear. Here, we established the neonatal rat hypoxic-ischemic brain damage (HIBD) model in vivo and the PC12 cell oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model in vitro to investigate the neuroprotective effects of GsRb1 on HIE, and illuminate the potential mechanism. Our results showed that GsRb1 and the ferroptosis inhibitor liproxstatin-1 (Lip-1) could significantly restore System Xc activity and antioxidant levels as well as inhibit lipid oxidation levels and inflammatory index levels of HIBD and OGD models. Taken together, GsRb1 might inhibit ferroptosis to exert neuroprotective effects on HIE through alleviating oxidative stress and inflammation, which will set the foundation for future research on ferroptosis by reducing hypoxic-ischemic brain injury and suggest that GsRb1 might be a promising therapeutic agent for HIE.

Novel Herbal Therapeutic YH23537 Improves Clinical Parameters in Ligature-Induced Periodontal Disease Model in Beagle Dogs

Currently, available medicine does not satisfy the clinical unmet needs of periodontal disease. Therefore, novel drugs with improved efficacy profiles are needed. We previously demonstrated that YH14642, water extracts of Notoginseng Radix and Rehmanniae Radix Preparata, improved probing depths in double-blind phase II clinical trial. However, it still has hurdles for commercialization due to the low efficiency of active compound extraction. To resolve this issue, we developed YH23537 through process optimization to extract active compounds efficiently while still achieving the chemical profile of YH14642. In this study, we investigated the therapeutic effects of YH23537 compared with YH14642 using a canine model of ligature-induced periodontitis. Human gingival fibroblast (hGF) cells were treated with various concentrations of YH23537 or YH14642 with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 24 hr. IL-6 and IL-8 levels in the conditioned media were determined using Luminex. Sixteen 3-year-old male beagle dogs had their teeth scaled and polished using a piezo-type ultrasonic scaler under general anesthesia and brushed once daily for the following 2 weeks. Two weeks after the scaling procedure, the left upper second premolar (PM2), third premolar (PM3), and fourth premolar (PM4) as well as the left lower PM3, PM4, and first molar (M1) were ligated with silk-wire twisted ligatures. The dogs were fed with soft moistened food to induce periodontitis for 8 weeks, and the ligatures were then removed. YH23537 and YH14642 were administered for 4 weeks, and clinical periodontal parameters such as plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), probing depth (PD), clinical attachment level (CAL), and bleeding on probing (BoP) were determined before and 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks after treatment. YH23537 inhibited IL-6 and IL-8 secretion in a dose-dependent manner in hGF cells stimulated with LPS. The IC₅₀ values for YH23537 were 43 and 54 μg/ml for IL-6 and IL-8, respectively, while the values for YH14642 were 104 and 117 μg/ml, respectively. In the animal study, clinical parameters including GI, PD, CAL, and BoP were significantly increased after 8 weeks of ligature-induced periodontitis. The YH23537 300 and YH23537 900 mg groups had significant improvements in CAL from 1 to 4 weeks after treatment in comparison to the placebo group. GR values in the YH23537 900 mg group were decreased throughout the treatment period. GI values were also reduced significantly after 4-week treatment with 300 and 900 mg of YH23537. YH23537 at 300 mg doses showed comparable efficacy for CAL and GR with 1,000 mg of YH14642. YH23537 showed therapeutic efficacy against periodontitis in dogs, mediated by anti-inflammatory effects. These findings indicate that YH23537 has the potential for further development as a new drug for patients suffering from periodontal disease.

Effects of Lactobacillus plantarum fermented Shenling Baizhu San on gut microbiota, antioxidant capacity, and intestinal barrier function of yellow-plumed broilers

The current study focused on the effects of Shenling Baizhu San (SLBZS) fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum (L. plantarum) on gut microbiota, antioxidant capacity, and intestinal barrier function of yellow-plumed broilers. Our results showed that the content of ginsenoside Rb1 was the highest when SLBZS were inoculated with 3% L. plantarum and fermented at 28°C for 24 h. One-day-old male broilers were divided into five treatment groups. Treatment consisted of a basal diet as a control (Con), 0.1% unfermented SLBZS (U-SLBZS), 0.05% fermented SLBZS (F-SLBZS-L), 0.1% fermented SLBZS (F-SLBZS-M), and 0.2% fermented SLBZS (F-SLBZS-H). On days 14, 28, and 42, six chickens from each group were randomly selected for blood collection and tissue sampling. The results showed that the addition of 0.1% fermented SLBZS could significantly increase average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily gain (ADG), and decrease feed conversion ratio (FCR) of broilers. The addition of 0.1 and 0.2% fermented SLBZS significantly increased the lymphoid organ index of broilers on day 28 and 42. The addition of 0.1 and 0.2% fermented SLBZS could improve the antioxidant capacity of broilers. Moreover, the addition of 0.1 and 0.2% fermented SLBZS could significantly increase the villus height/crypt depth of the ileum, and significantly increase the expression of tight junction. In addition, fermentation of SLBZS increase the abundance of Coprococcus, Bifidobacterium and Bilophila in the gut of broilers. These results indicate that the supplementation of fermented SLBZS in the diet could improve the growth performance, lymphoid organ index, antioxidant capacity, and positively affect the intestinal health of broilers.

Anti-neuroinflammatory of Chloroform Extract of Panax ginseng Root Culture on Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV2 Microglia Cells

Background

It is believed that activation of microglia in the central nervous system upon detection of stimulus like lipopolysaccharides provokes neuroinflammation via the production of pro-inflammatory mediators and cytokines. The cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of various folk medicine has been gaining attention as a strategy to combat various disease. This study aimed to assess the anti-neuroinflammatory properties of chloroform extract of in vitro Panax ginseng root culture based on nitric oxide and cytokines production.

Methods

The study was initiated with the determination of maximum non-toxic dose (MNTD) of P. ginseng root culture chloroform extract using the MTT assay. The lipopolysaccharides-stimulated BV2 microglia cells were treated with MNTD and ½MNTD of the extract and its anti-neuroinflammatory properties were assessed by measuring the production of nitric oxide (NO) via Griess assay, as well as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 using Quantikine ELISA.

Results

It was found that the MNTD and ½MNTD of the extract did not play a significant role in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as NO, TNF-α and IL-6. However, the MNTD and ½MNTD of chloroform extract significantly increased the anti-inflammatory IL-10 compared to the untreated cells.

Conclusion

With this, the chloroform extract of P. ginseng root culture potentially exerts anti-neuroinflammatory properties.

Progress on the Elucidation of the Antinociceptive Effect of Ginseng and Ginsenosides in Chronic Pain

Ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) is a traditional Oriental herbal drug widely used in East Asia. Its main active ingredients are ginsenosides whose constituents are known to have various pharmacological activities such as anticancer, antinociception, and neuroprotection. The analgesic effects of ginsenosides, such as Rg1, Rg2, and Rb1, as well as compound K, are well known and the analgesic mechanism of action in inflammatory pain models is thought to be the down regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (TNF-α IL-1β, and IL-6). Several studies have also demonstrated that ginsenosides regulate neuropathic pain through the modulation of estrogen receptors. Recently, an increasing number of pathways have emerged in relation to the antinociceptive effect of ginseng and ginsenosides. Therefore, this review presents our current understanding of the effectiveness of ginseng in chronic pain and how its active constituents regulate nociceptive responses and their mechanisms of action.

The Role of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants against Obesity and Arthritis: A Review

Obesity is a significant health concern, as it causes a massive cascade of chronic inflammations and multiple morbidities. Rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis are chronic inflammatory conditions and often manifest as comorbidities of obesity. Adipose tissues serve as a reservoir of energy as well as releasing several inflammatory cytokines (including IL-6, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) that stimulate low-grade chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, fatty liver disease, oxidative stress, and chronic kidney diseases. Dietary intake, low physical activity, unhealthy lifestyle, smoking, alcohol consumption, and genetic and environmental factors can influence obesity and arthritis. Current arthritis management using modern medicines produces various adverse reactions. Medicinal plants have been a significant part of traditional medicine, and various plants and phytochemicals have shown effectiveness against arthritis and obesity; however, scientifically, this traditional plant-based treatment option needs validation through proper clinical trials and toxicity tests. In addition, essential oils obtained from aromatic plants are being widely used as for complementary therapy (e.g., aromatherapy, smelling, spicing, and consumption with food) against arthritis and obesity; scientific evidence is necessary to support their effectiveness. This review is an attempt to understand the pathophysiological connections between obesity and arthritis, and describes treatment options derived from medicinal, spice, and aromatic plants.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Attenuates TNF-α-Induced Damage in Chondrocytes through Regulating SIRT1-Mediated Anti-Apoptotic and Anti-Inflammatory Mechanisms

The upregulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) is a common event in arthritis, and the subsequent signaling cascade that leads to tissue damage has become the research focus. To explore a potential therapeutic strategy to prevent cartilage degradation, we tested the effect of ginsenoside Rg3, a bioactive component of Panax ginseng, on TNF-α-stimulated chondrocytes.TC28a2 Human Chondrocytes were treated with TNF-α to induce damage of chondrocytes. SIRT1 and PGC-1a expression levels were investigated by Western blotting assay. Mitochondrial SIRT3 and acetylated Cyclophilin D (CypD) were investigated using mitochondrial isolation. The mitochondrial mass number and mitochondrial DNA copy were studied for mitochondrial biogenesis. MitoSOX and JC-1 were used for the investigation of mitochondrial ROS and membrane potential. Apoptotic markers, pro-inflammatory events were also tested to prove the protective effects of Rg3. We showed Rg3 reversed the TNF-α-inhibited SIRT1 expression. Moreover, the activation of the SIRT1/PGC-1α/SIRT3 pathway by Rg3 suppressed the TNF-α-induced acetylation of CypD, resulting in less mitochondrial dysfunction and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Additionally, we demonstrated that the reduction of ROS ameliorated the TNF-α-elicited apoptosis. Furthermore, the Rg3-reverted SIRT1/PGC-1α/SIRT3 activation mediated the repression of p38 MAPK, which downregulated the NF-κB translocation in the TNF-α-treated cells. Our results revealed that administration of Rg3 diminished the production of interleukin 8 (IL-8) and matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) in chondrocytes via SIRT1/PGC-1α/SIRT3/p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling in response to TNF-α stimulation. Taken together, we showed that Rg3 may serve as an adjunct therapy for patients with arthritis.

Therapeutic effect of various ginsenosides on rheumatoid arthritis

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease which causes disability and threatens the health of humans. Therefore, it is of great significance to seek novel effective drugs for RA. It has been reported that various ginsenoside monomers are able to treat RA. However, it is still unclear which ginsenoside is the most effective and has the potential to be developed into an anti-RA drug.

Methods

The ginsenosides, including Rg1, Rg3, Rg5, Rb1, Rh2 and CK, were evaluated and compared for their therapeutic effect on RA. In in vitro cell studies, methotrexate (MTX) and 0.05% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was set as a positive control group and a negative control group, respectively. LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and TNF-α-induced HUVEC cells were cultured with MTX, DMSO and six ginsenosides, respectively. Cell proliferation was analyzed by MTT assay and cell apoptosis was carried out by flow cytometry. CIA mice model was developed to evaluate the therapeutic efficacy of ginsenosides. The analysis of histology, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry and cytokine detections of the joint tissues were performed to elucidate the action mechanisms of ginsenosides.

Results

All six ginsenosides showed good therapeutic effect on acute arthritis compared with the negative control group, Ginsenoside CK provided the most effective treatment ability. It could significantly inhibit the proliferation and promote the apoptosis of RAW 264.7 and HUVEC cells, and substantially reduce the swelling, redness, functional impairment of joints and the pathological changes of CIA mice. Meanwhile, CK could increase CD8 + T cell to down-regulate the immune response, decrease the number of activated CD4 + T cell and proinflammatory M1-macrophages, thus resulting in the inhibition of the secretion of proinflammatory cytokine such as TNF-α and IL-6.

Conclusion

Ginsenoside CK was proved to be a most potential candidate among the tested ginsenosides for the treatment of RA, with a strong anti-inflammation and immune modulating capabilities.

A mechanistic insight of phytoestrogens used for Rheumatoid arthritis: An evidence-based review

Assessment of the potential therapeutic benefits offered by naturally occurring phytoestrogens necessitate inspection of their potency and sites of action in impeding the chronic, systemic, autoimmune, joint destructing disorder Rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Possessing structural and functional similarity with human estrogen, phytoestrogen promisingly replaces the use of hormone therapy in eradicating RA symptoms with their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidative, anti-proliferative, anti-angiogenesis, immunomodulatory, joint protection properties abolishing the harmful side effects of synthetic drugs. Scientific evidences revealed that use of phytoestrogens from different chemical categories including flavonoids, alkaloids, stilbenoids derived from different plant species manifest beneficial effects on RA through various cellular mechanisms including suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in particular tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin(IL-6) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) and destructive metalloproteinases, inhibition of oxidative stress, suppressing inflammatory signalling pathways, attenuating osteoclastogenesis ameliorating cartilage degradation and bone erosion. This review summarizes the evidences of different phytoestrogen treatment and their pharmacological mechanisms in both in vitro and in vivo studies along with discussing clinical evaluations in RA patients showing phytoestrogen as a promising agent for RA therapy. Further investigations and more clinical trials are mandatory to clarify the utility of these plant derived compounds in RA prevention and in managing oestrogen deficient diseases in patients.

Characteristics of Panax ginseng Cultivars in Korea and China

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is one of the most important medicinal herbs in Asia. Its pharmacological activity comes from ginsenosides, and its roots are produced commercially for traditional and Oriental medicine. Though 17 Panax species are available around the world, there was a need to develop cultivars adapted to different climatic conditions and resistant to various diseases while still producing high-quality, high-yield roots. Thus, 12 and 9 commercial P. ginseng cultivars have been registered in South Korea and China, respectively. Those varieties show superiority to local landraces. For example, Chunpoong is more highly resistant to rusty rot disease than the local Jakyungjong landrace and has a good root shape; it is highly cultivated to produce red ginseng. The Chinese cultivar Jilin Huangguo Renshen has higher ginsenoside content than its local landraces. This review provides information about P. ginseng cultivars and offers directions for future research, such as intra- and interspecific hybridization.

Ginsenoside Rg3 Alleviates Complete Freund's Adjuvant-Induced Rheumatoid Arthritis in Mice by Regulating CD4+CD25+Foxp3+Treg Cells

Ginsenoside Rg3 (GRg3) is one of the major bioactive ingredients of ginseng, which is not only used as a herbal medicine but also used as a functional food to support body functions. In this study, the beneficial effects of GRg3 on rheumatoid arthritis (RA) mice was evaluated from anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive aspects. The footpad swelling rate, pathological changes of the ankle joint, and levels of tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin 6, interleukin 10, and tumor necrosis factor β were used to assess the anti-inflammatory effect of GRg3 on RA mice. Flow cytometric analysis of CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺Treg cell percentage and metabolomic analysis based on gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry were used to assess the immunosuppressive effect and underlying mechanisms. GRg3 exhibited anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects on RA mice. The potential mechanisms were related to regulate the pathways of oxidative phosphorylation and enhance the function of CD4⁺CD25⁺Foxp3⁺Treg cells to maintain peripheral immune tolerance of RA mice. These findings can provide a preliminary experimental basis to exploit GRg3 as a functional food or an effective complementary for the adjuvant therapy of RA.

Quercetin Combined With Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cells Regulated Tumour Necrosis Factor-α/Interferon-γ-Stimulated Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells via Activation of Toll-Like Receptor 3 Signalling

The beneficial effect of quercetin in rheumatic diseases is unclear. Studies have already confirmed that human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) alleviate some symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) by their immunosuppressive capacities. This study explored whether there are additive effects of quercetin and hUCMSCs on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) under simulated rheumatic conditions. hUCMSCs were pretreated with quercetin (10 μM) before coculture with TNF-α/IFN-γ-stimulated PBMCs at a ratio of 1:1 for 3 days. PBMC proliferation was inhibited, and the proportion of Th17 cells was shifted. These effects may be related to the effect of quercetin on functional molecules in hUCMSCs, including nitric oxide (NO), indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), interleukin 6 (IL-6) and Toll-like receptor-3 (TLR-3) and the Akt/IκB pathways. These results suggest that quercetin effectively promoted the immunoregulatory effect of hUCMSCs by inhibiting the Akt/IκB pathway, activating the Toll-like receptor-3 pathway, and regulating downstream cytokines.

Effects of Amniotic Membrane Extract on the Hyperplastic Response of the Middle Ear Mucosa in a Bacterially-Induced Otitis Media Rat Model: A Preliminary Study

Objectives

Human amniotic membrane extract (AME) is known to contain numerous bioactive factors and anti-inflammatory substances. However, the anti-inflammatory effects of AME on the middle ear (ME) mucosa are unclear. This study assessed the effects of AME on the growth of the ME mucosa in response to bacterially-induced otitis media (OM).

Methods

OM was induced by inoculating nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) into the ME cavity of rats. ME mucosal explants were cultured in AME concentrations of 0, 5, 10, or 50 μg/mL. The area of explant outgrowth was measured in culture and analyzed at 1, 3, 5, and 7 days after explantation. The expression of Ki-67, mucin 5AC (MUC5AC), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the explants was also evaluated using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunocytochemistry (ICC).

Results

The NTHi-induced ME mucosa growth increased gradually over the 7-day culture period in all explants at different AME concentrations. There was a trend for mucosal growth inhibition at higher concentrations of AME, although the growth was not significantly different among the groups until day 5. The ME mucosal explants treated with the 50 μg/mL concentration of AME showed significantly suppressed growth on postexplantation day 7 compared with other explants on the same day. PCR and ICC staining revealed that the expression of Ki-67, MUC5AC, TNF-α, and IL-10 further decreased in the explants with higher concentrations of AME than in those with lower concentrations of AME.

Conclusion

Our results showed that higher concentrations of AME reduced the mucosal proliferative response in bacterial OM in rats. These findings provide evidence that AME has an influence on the inflammatory and proliferative responses to NTHi infection in ME mucosa.

Pien Tze Huang alleviate the joint inflammation in collagen-induced arthritis mice

Background

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease characterized by synovitis. Pien Tze Huang (PZH) is a Chinese patent medicine with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects. However, whether PZH could be used in RA therapy is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the therapeutic effect and the potential mechanism of PZH on collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) mice.

Methods

Male DBA/1J mice were used to establish an animal model of CIA and then treated with different doses of PZH for 4 weeks. The therapeutic effect of PZH on CIA mice was evaluated by arthritis score, pathological staining, and detecting the levels of inflammatory factors in serum and joints. To investigate its possible mechanism, the activity of NF-κB signaling pathway, NLRP3 inflammasome and the level of A20 were detected.

Results

The results showed that PZH could alleviate the erythema and swelling of hind paws of CIA mice, improve the pathological conditions of joint and decrease the production of IL-1β, IL-6 and IL-17 in serum and joints. Furthermore, PZH could significantly inhibit the activity of NF-κB signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome in the ankle joint of CIA mice compared with the model group. It also increased the level of A20 in the ankle joint of CIA mice.

Conclusion

This study indicated that PZH could alleviate the joint inflammation of CIA mice, and the mechanism might be related to the regulation of NF-κB signaling pathway and NLRP3 inflammasome.

Ginsenoside Rb1 inhibits monoiodoacetate-induced osteoarthritis in postmenopausal rats through prevention of cartilage degradation

Background

Ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1), one of the major active compounds in Panax ginseng, has already been shown to reduce inflammation in various diseases. Osteoarthritis (OA) has traditionally been considered a degenerative disease with degradation of joint articular cartilage. However, recent studies have shown the association of inflammation with OA. In the present study, we investigated whether Rb1 had an antiinflammatory effect on monoiodoacetate (MIA)-induced OA in ovariectomized rats as a model of postmenopausal arthritis.

Methods

G-Rb1 at a dosage of 3 and 10 μg/kg body weight was administered every 3 days intraarticularly for a period of 4 weeks to observe antiarthritic effects. Diclofenac (10 mg/kg) served as a positive control.

Results

The administration of Rb1 significantly ameliorated OA inflammatory symptoms and reduced serum levels of inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, G-Rb1 administration considerably enhanced the expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 and collagen 2A and reduced the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-13 genes, indicating a chondroprotective effect of G-Rb1. G-Rb1 also significantly reduced the expression of several inflammatory cytokines/chemokines (interferon gamma (IFN-γ), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1)/CCL-2, interleukin [IL]-1β, and IL-6). Histological analysis demonstrated that G-Rb1 significantly attenuated the pathological changes in MIA-induced OA in ovariectomized rats. Safranin O and toluidine blue staining further demonstrated that G-Rb1 effectively prevented the degradation of cartilage and glycosaminoglycans, respectively.

Conclusion

Overall, our results suggest that G-Rb1 exerts cartilage protective effect on MIA-induced ovariectomized OA rats, by inhibiting inflammatory mediators such as IL-6, IL-1β, MCP-1/CCL-2, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE2). These results shed a light on possible therapeutic application of G-Rb1 in OA.

Effect of curcumin on gene expression and protein level of methionine sulfoxide reductase A (MSRA), SOD, CAT and GPx in Freund's adjuvant inflammation-induced male rats

Objective

Curcumin is the well-known compound which is extracted from turmeric powder, the dried rhizome of the Curcuma longa Linn. This have been used for the treatment of various disorders including inflammation. In this study we have analyzed the effect of curcumin on arthritis induced by adjuvant in rats, considering changes in methionine sulfoxide reductase A (MSRA) expression and antioxidant enzymes levels.

Methods

Five groups of adult male Wistar rats (n=10), were randomly selected as control, placebo, experimental 1, 2 and 3. The induction of arthritis was carried out by injection of 0.1 ml adjuvant in plantar region. The first experimental group received no curcumin treatment, whereas the experimental two and three received curcumin (1 and 2 g/kg daily) respectively, for fourteen days. MSRA gene expression was assessed by real-time PCR and protein levels of MSRA, SOD, CAT and GPx were analyzed via ELISA method.

Results

The results showed no significant weight changes among the groups during the experimental period and the paw swelling caused by adjuvant was recovered within fourteen days of treatment with curcumin. However, the levels of enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase were increased by a dose dependent manner. These results also illustrated that the gene expression and protein level of MSRA in groups treated with curcumin increased significantly (p≤0.05).

Conclusion

We concluded that the curcumin can be used against inflammation. The increasing level of MSRA can be due to the antioxidant effect of curcumin. The enzymatic level changes (MSRA, SOD, CAT and GPx) may interfere with the aging process and delay it.

Effect of Panax ginseng extract on the activity of diabetic fibroblasts in vitro

Numerous studies have demonstrated the various medicinal properties of Panax ginseng, including angiogenic, immuno-stimulating, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities, which can be helpful in chronic wound healing. However, a direct role for P. ginseng in chronic wound healing has not been demonstrated. The present study was designed to evaluate the effects of P. ginseng extract on diabetic fibroblasts in vitro. Human diabetic fibroblasts were cultured in the presence of Ginsenoside Rb1 (G-Rb1), the active component in P. ginseng (10 ng/mL), and untreated diabetic fibroblasts were used as controls. Cell proliferation, collagen synthesis, the production of various growth factors (basic fibroblast growth factor [bFGF]; vascular endothelial growth factor [VEGF]; and transforming growth factor-β1 [TGF-β1]), and the synthesis of matrix metalloproteinase 1 (MMP-1) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1 (TIMP-1) were compared using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and immunofluorescence staining. Compared with the control group, G-Rb1-treated fibroblasts showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher levels of cell proliferation, collagen synthesis, VEGF, TGF-β1, and TIMP-1. However, no significant differences in bFGF and MMP-1 levels were observed between the two groups. These results suggest that P. ginseng treatment may stimulate the wound-healing activity of diabetic fibroblasts in vitro.

Design of novel JAK3 Inhibitors towards Rheumatoid Arthritis using molecular docking analysis

Multiple cytokines play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of Rheumatoid Arthritis by inducing intracellular signaling and it is known that the members of the Janus kinase (JAK) family are essential for such signal transduction. Janus kinase 3 is a tyrosine kinase that belongs to the Janus family of kinases. Drugs targeting JAK3 in the treatment of Rheumatoid arthritis is relevant. Therefore, it is of interest to design suitable inhibitors for JAK3 dimer using molecular docking with Molegro Virtual Docker. The compound possessing the highest affinity score is subjected to virtual screening to retrieve inhibitors. The compound SCHEMBL19100243 (PubChem CID- 76749591) displays a high affinity with the target protein. The affinity scores of this compound are more than known drugs. ADMET analysis and BOILED Egg plot provide insights into this compound as a potent inhibitor of JAK3.

Ginsenoside Rb1 and mitochondria: A short review of the literature

Mitochondria play a central role in various critical cellular processes, including energy synthesis, energy supply and apoptosis. Panax notoginseng, a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine, has various pharmacological effects on the human body. Ginsenosides are representative bioactive components of P. notoginseng. Recently, more attention has focused on ginsenoside Rb1 as an antioxidative and anti-inflammatory agent that can protect the nervous system and the cardiovascular system. Numerous studies have shown that Rb1 exerts these effects by regulating mitochondrial energy metabolism, mitochondrial fission and fusion, apoptosis, oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species release, mitophagy and mitochondrial membrane potential. Thus, the mitochondria are pivotal targets of Rb1. This review summarized the available reports of the effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on the regulation of mitochondria and showed that it has a promising role in treating mitochondrial diseases.

Inhibitory Effects of Ginsenoside Rb1 on Early Atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- Mice via Inhibition of Apoptosis and Enhancing Autophagy

Inflammation is a major contributing factor to the progression of atherosclerosis. Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), an active saponin of Panax notoginseng, has been found to exert beneficial effects on inflammation and oxidative stress. This study investigated the ability of Rb1 to inhibit the formation of atherosclerotic plaques and the potential mechanisms. In this study, the effects of Rb1 on the development of atherosclerosis were investigated in ApoE-/- deficient mice fed with a western diet. Mice were intragastrically administrated with Rb1 (10 mg/kg) for 8 weeks. This study is that ginsenoside Rb1 exerted an inhibitory effect on early atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice via decreasing body weight and food intake daily, upregulating the lipid levels of serum plasma, including those of TC, TG and LDL-C and HDL-C and reducing the atherosclerotic plaque area, suppressing inflammatory cytokines (levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α) in the serum of ApoE-/- mice, changing the expression levels of BCL-2, BAX, cleaved caspase-3 and cleaved caspase-9 and weakening apoptosis associated with anti-inflammatory activity. Hence, all these effects against atherosclerosis were tightly associated with regulation of necrosis or apoptosis associated with anti-inflammatory activity. Additionally, the results found that ginsenoside Rb1 increased autophagy flux to inhibit apoptosis via acceleration of autophagy by promoting transformation of LC3 from type I to type II in high-fat diet-induced atherosclerosis in ApoE-/- mice. This finding, along with those of the previous study, provides evidence that Rb1 promotes the process of autophagy to protect against atherosclerosis via regulating BCL-2 family-related apoptosis. These results indicate that Rb1 exhibits therapeutic effects in atherosclerosis by reversing the imbalance between apoptosis and autophagy.

Ameliorative effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on rheumatic diseases

Background

Inflammation is a host-defensive innate immune response to protect the body from pathogenic agents and danger signals induced by cellular changes. Although inflammation is a host-defense mechanism, chronic inflammation is considered a major risk factor for the development of a variety of inflammatory autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatic diseases. Rheumatic diseases are systemic inflammatory and degenerative diseases that primarily affect connective tissues and are characterized by severe chronic inflammation and degeneration of connective tissues. Ginseng and its bioactive ingredients, genocides, have been demonstrated to have antiinflammatory activity and pharmacological effects on various rheumatic diseases by inhibiting the expression and production of inflammatory mediators.

Methods

Literature in this review was searched in a PubMed site of National Center for Biotechnology Information.

Results

The studies reporting the preventive and therapeutic effects of ginseng and ginsenosides on the pathogenesis of rheumatic diseases were discussed and summarized.

Conclusion

Ginseng and ginsenosides play an ameliorative role on rheumatic diseases, and this review provides new insights into ginseng and ginsenosides as promising agents to prevent and treat rheumatic diseases.

An analysis of the combination frequencies of constituent medicinal herbs in prescriptions for the treatment of bone and joint disorder in Korean medicine: determination of a group of candidate prescriptions for universal use

Background

This study aimed to select prescriptions (mixtures of medicinal herbs) used in the treatment of bone and joint disorders in Korean medicine, and through the analysis of medicinal herb combination frequencies, select a high-frequency medicinal herb combination group for further experimental and clinical research.

Methods

We systematically searched for terms related to bone and joint disorder in the “Dongeuibogam (Dong yibaojian)”, a seminal Korean medicine book. We reviewed the results of published papers regarding the effects in bone and joint disorders (especially in osteoporosis, osteomalacia, osteopenia, rheumatoid arthritis, and degenerative arthritis).

Results

In total, 34 candidates of a medicinal herb combination for the treatment of bone and joint disorders(CMHCTBJDs) and nine candidates of a medicinal herb for the treatment of bone and joint disorders(CMHTBJDs) were selected.

Conclusion

: The candidates of a medicinal herb combination for the treatment of bone and joint disorders (CMHCTBJDs) and candidates of a medicinal herb for the treatment of bone and joint disorders(CMHTBJDs) proposed in this study can be useful material for text mining to develop natural products with the effects in BJDs and also it has the potential to reduce the experimental and developmental time period.

Ginsenoside Rb1 ameliorates cisplatin-induced learning and memory impairments

Background

Ginsenoside Rb1 (Rb1), a dominant component from the extract of Panax ginseng root, exhibits neuroprotective functions in many neurological diseases. This study was intended to investigate whether Rb1 can attenuate cisplatin-induced memory impairments and explore the potential mechanisms.

Methods

Cisplatin was injected intraperitoneally with a dose of 5 mg/kg/wk, and Rb1 was administered in drinking water at the dose of 2 mg/kg/d to rats for 5 consecutive wk. The novel objects recognition task and Morris water maze were used to detect the memory of rats. Nissl staining was used to examine the neuron numbers in the hippocampus. The activities of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, cholineacetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, and the levels of malondialdehyde, reactive oxygen species, acetylcholine, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-10 were measured by ELISA to assay the oxidative stress, cholinergic function, and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus.

Results

Rb1 administration effectively ameliorates the memory impairments caused by cisplatin in both novel objects recognition task and Morris water maze task. Rb1 also attenuates the neuronal loss induced by cisplatin in the different regions (CA1, CA3, and dentate gyrus) of the hippocampus. Meanwhile, Rb1 is able to rescue the cholinergic neuron function, inhibit the oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in cisplatin-induced rat brain.

Conclusion

Rb1 rescues the cisplatin-induced memory impairment via restoring the neuronal loss by reducing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation and recovering the cholinergic neuron functions.

Microbial transformation of ginsenoside Rb1, Re and Rg1 and its contribution to the improved anti-inflammatory activity of ginseng

Microbial transformation of ginsenosides to increase its pharmaceutical effect is gaining increasing attention in recent years. In this study, Cellulosimicrobium sp. TH-20, which was isolated from soil samples on which ginseng grown, exhibited effective ginsenoside-transforming activity. After protopanaxadiol (PPD)-type ginsenoside (Rb1) and protopanaxatriol (PPT)-type ginsenosides (Re and Rg1) were fed to C. sp. TH20, a total of 12 metabolites, including 6 new intermediate metabolites, were identified. Stepwise deglycosylation and dehydrogenation on the feeding precursors have been observed. The final products were confirmed to be rare ginsenosides Rd, GypXVII, Rg2 and PPT after 96 h transformation with 38–96% yields. The four products showed improved anti-inflammatory activities by using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced murine RAW 264.7 macrophages and the xylene-induced acute inflammatory model of mouse ear edema. The results indicated that they could dramatically attenuate the production of TNF-α more effectively than the precursors. Our study would provide an example of a unique and powerful microbial cell factory for efficiently converting both PPD-type and PPT-type ginsenosides to rare natural products, which extends the drug candidates as novel anti-inflammatory remedies.

Effects of ginseng on stress-related depression, anxiety, and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis

Ginseng effectively regulates the immune response and the hormonal changes due to stress, thus maintaining homeostasis. In addition to suppressing the occurrence of psychological diseases such as anxiety and depression, ginseng also prevents stress-associated physiological diseases. Recent findings have revealed that ginseng is involved in adjusting the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and controlling hormones, thus producing beneficial effects on the heart and brain, and in cases of bone diseases, as well as alleviating erectile dysfunction. Recent studies have highlighted the potential use of ginseng in the prevention and treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases such as diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, and allergic asthma. However, the mechanism underlying the effects of ginseng on these stress-related diseases has not been completely established. In this review, we focus on the disease pathways caused by stress in order to determine how ginseng acts to improve health. Central to our discussion is how this effective and stable therapeutic agent alleviates the anxiety and depression caused by stress and ameliorates inflammatory diseases.

Korean Red Ginseng exhibits no significant adverse effect on disease activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized, double-blind, crossover study

Background

Panax ginseng is a well-known immune modulator, and there is concern that its immune-enhancing effects may negatively affect patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) by worsening symptoms or increasing the risk of adverse effects from other drugs. In this randomized, crossover clinical trial, we evaluated the impact of Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) on disease activity and safety in RA patients.

Methods

A total of 80 female RA patients were randomly assigned to either the KRG (2 g/d, n = 40) treatment or placebo (n = 40) groups for 8 wk, followed by crossover to the other treatment group for an additional 8 wk. The primary outcome was the disease flare rate, defined as worsening disease activity according to the disease activity score 28 joints-erythrocyte sedimentation rate (DAS28-ESR). The secondary outcomes were development of adverse events (AEs) and patient reported outcomes. Outcomes were evaluated at baseline and 8 wk and 16 wk. The outcomes were compared using the Chi-square test.

Results

Of the 80 patients, 70 completed the full study. Their mean age was 51.9 yr, and most exhibited low disease activity (mean DAS28-ESR 3.5 ± 1.0) at enrollment. After intervention, the flare rate was 3.7% in each group. During KRG treatment, 10 AEs were reported, while five AEs were developed with placebo; however, this difference was not statistically significant (p = 0.16). Gastrointestinal- and nervous system-related symptoms were frequent in the KRG group.

Conclusion

KRG is not significantly associated with either disease flare rate or the rate of AE development in RA patients.

The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis using Chinese medicinal plants: From pharmacology to potential molecular mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common worldwide public health problem. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) achieved some results to some extent in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Especially in China, TCM formulas are used in the clinic because of their advantages. Some of these TCM formulas have been used for thousands of years in ancient China, they pays much attention to strengthening healthy qi, cleaning heat, and wet, activating blood, etc. So TCM in anti-RA drug is considered as a simple and effective method. In addition, TCM are also traditionally used as extracts and many Chinese herbs which are considered to be effective for RA. With the advancement of technologies and research methods, researchers have devoted themselves to exploring new therapeutic materials from troves of TCM. The components of TCM are identified and purified, which include alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins and so on. However, little or no review works are found in the research literature on the anti-RA drugs from TCM. The present review aims to provide systematically reorganized information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of TCM used traditionally against RA. The information recorded in this review will provide new directions for researchers in the future.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant scientific literatures were collected from Chinese traditional books and Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Several important pharmacology data, clinical observations, animal experiments on effects of anti-RA drugs from TCM and their mechanisms were extracted from a library and electric search (Pubmed, PubChem Compound, Science Direct, Spring Link, Elsevier, Web of Science, CNKI, Wan Fang, Bai du, The Plant List, etc.). We collected information published between 2002 and 2015 on Chinese medicine in the treatment of RA. Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduces the current research on anti-RA TCM formulas, extracts and compounds from TCM, pharmacological data and potential mechanisms (inhibit osteoclast proliferation, suppress fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) growth, decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines, blocking signal pathways, etc.).

CONCLUSIONS

TCM, as a multi-component and multi-target approach, which is a perfect match with the holistic concept of systems biology, is applicable in the treatment of RA. The synergistic connections of Chinese herbs and mechanisms of related active compounds on RA increase the trust for TCM. TCM as alternative remedies for RA not only has an important position in the world market, but also has an irreplaceable role in the treatment of RA in future.

Effects of Panax ginseng extract on human dermal fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis

Current studies of Panax ginseng (or Korean ginseng) have demonstrated that it has various biological effects, including angiogenesis, immunostimulation, antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects. Therefore, we hypothesised that P. ginseng may also play an important role in wound healing. However, few studies have been conducted on the wound-healing effects of P. ginseng. Thus, the purpose of this in vitro pilot study was to determine the effects of P. ginseng on the activities of fibroblasts, which are key wound-healing cells. Cultured human dermal fibroblasts were treated with one of six concentrations of P. ginseng: 0, 1, 10 and 100 ng/ml and 1 and 10 µg/ml. Cell proliferation was determined 3 days post-treatment using the 3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide assay, and collagen synthesis was evaluated by the collagen type I carboxy-terminal propeptide method. Cell proliferation levels and collagen synthesis were compared among the groups. The 10 ng/ml to 1 µg/ml P. ginseng treatments significantly increased cell proliferation, and the 1 ng/ml to 1 µg/ml concentrations significantly increased collagen synthesis. The maximum effects for both parameters were observed at 10 ng/ml. P. ginseng stimulated human dermal fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis at an optimal concentration of 10 ng/ml.

Anti-inflammatory activity of AP-SF, a ginsenoside-enriched fraction, from Korean ginseng

BACKGROUND

Korean ginseng is an ethnopharmacologically valuable herbal plant with various biological properties including anticancer, antiatherosclerosis, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities. Since there is currently no drug or therapeutic remedy derived from Korean ginseng, we developed a ginsenoside-enriched fraction (AP-SF) for prevention of various inflammatory symptoms.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory efficacy of AP-SF was tested under in vitro inflammatory conditions including nitric oxide (NO) production and inflammatory gene expression. The molecular events of inflammatory responses were explored by immunoblot analysis.

RESULTS

AP-SF led to a significant suppression of NO production compared with a conventional Korean ginseng saponin fraction, induced by both lipopolysaccharide and zymosan A. Interestingly, AP-SF strongly downregulated the mRNA levels of genes for inducible NO synthase, tumor necrosis factor-α, and cyclooxygenase) without affecting cell viability. In agreement with these observations, AP-SF blocked the nuclear translocation of c-Jun at 2 h and also reduced phosphorylation of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase, and TAK-1, all of which are important for c-Jun translocation.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that AP-SF inhibits activation of c-Jun-dependent inflammatory events. Thus, AP-SF may be useful as a novel anti-inflammatory remedy.

The study of mechanisms of protective effect of Rg1 against arthritis by inhibiting osteoclast differentiation and maturation in CIA mice

Ginsenoside Rg1 is a natural product extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Although Rg1 protects tissue structure and functions by inhibiting local inflammatory reaction, the mechanism remains poorly understood. In vitro, Rg1 dose-dependently inhibited TRAP activity in receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand- (RANKL-) induced osteoclasts and decreased the number of osteoclasts and osteoclast resorption area. Rg1 also significantly inhibited the RANK signaling pathway, including suppressing the expression of Trap, cathepsin K, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9), and calcitonin receptor (CTR). In vivo, Rg1 dramatically decreased arthritis scores in CIA mice and effectively controlled symptoms of inflammatory arthritis. Pathologic analysis demonstrated that Rg1 significantly attenuated pathological changes in CIA mice. Pronounced reduction in synovial hyperplasia and inflammatory cell invasion were observed in CIA mice after Rg1 therapy. Alcian blue staining results illustrated that mice treated with Rg1 had significantly reduced destruction in the articular cartilage. TRAP and cathepsin K staining results demonstrated a significant reduction of numbers of OCs in the articular cartilage in proximal interphalangeal joints and ankle joints in Rg1-treated mice. In summary, this study revealed that Rg1 reduced the inflammatory destruction of periarticular bone by inhibiting differentiation and maturation of osteoclasts in CIA mice.

Red ginseng extract ameliorates autoimmune arthritis via regulation of STAT3 pathway, Th17/Treg balance, and osteoclastogenesis in mice and human

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized by chronic joint inflammation. Red ginseng is a steamed and dried Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, which has been used as alternative medicine for thousands of years. This study was undertaken to investigate the effects of red ginseng extracts (RGE) on autoimmune arthritis in mice and humans and to delineate the underlying mechanism. RGE was orally administered three times a week to mice with arthritis. Oral administration of RGE markedly ameliorated clinical arthritis score and histologically assessed joint inflammation in mice with CIA. A significant reduction in STAT3 phosphorylation and a decrease in the number of Th17 cells were observed with RGE treatment. There was also a marked reduction in RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis with treatment of RGE. The inhibitory effect of RGE on Th17 differentiation and osteoclastogenesis observed in mice was also confirmed in the subsequent experiments performed using human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Our findings provide the first evidence that RGE can regulate Th17 and reciprocally promote Treg cells by inhibiting the phosphorylation of STAT3. Therefore, RGE can ameliorate arthritis in mice with CIA by targeting pathogenic Th17 and osteoclast differentiation, suggesting a novel therapy for treatment of RA.

Molecular mechanism of protopanaxadiol saponin fraction-mediated anti-inflammatory actions

Background

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a representative traditional herbal medicine with many different pharmacological properties including anticancer, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-diabetes, and anti-inflammatory activities. Only a few studies have explored the molecular mechanism of KRG-mediated anti-inflammatory activity.

Methods

We investigated the anti-inflammatory mechanisms of the protopanaxadiol saponin fraction (PPD-SF) of KRG using in vitro and in vivo inflammatory models.

Results

PPD-SF dose-dependently diminished the release of inflammatory mediators [nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α, and prostaglandin E₂], and downregulated the mRNA expression of their corresponding genes (inducible NO synthase, tumor necrosis factor-α, and cyclooxygenase-2), without altering cell viability. The PPD-SF-mediated suppression of these events appeared to be regulated by a blockade of p38, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and TANK (TRAF family member-associated NF-kappa-B activator)-binding kinase 1 (TBK1), which are linked to the activation of activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) and interferon regulatory transcription factor 3 (IRF3). Moreover, this fraction also ameliorated HCl/ethanol/-induced gastritis via suppression of phospho-JNK2 levels.

Conclusion

These results strongly suggest that the anti-inflammatory action of PPD-SF could be mediated by a reduction in the activation of p38-, JNK2-, and TANK-binding-kinase-1-linked pathways and their corresponding transcription factors (ATF2 and IRF3).

Korean red ginseng saponin fraction rich in ginsenoside-Rb1, Rc and Rb2 attenuates the severity of mouse collagen-induced arthritis

Despite a multitude of reports on anti-inflammatory properties of ginseng extracts or individual ginsenosides, data on antiarthritic effect of ginseng saponin preparation with mixed ginsenosides is limited. On the other hand, a combined therapy of safe and inexpensive plant-derived natural products such as ginsenosides can be considered as an alternative to treat arthritis. Our previous in vitro data displayed a strong anti-inflammatory action of red ginseng saponin fraction-A (RGSF-A). We, herein, report a marked antiarthritic property of RGSF-A rich in ginsenoside Rb1, Rc, and Rb2. Collagen-induced arthritic (CIA) mice were treated with RGSF-A or methotrexate (MTX) for 5 weeks. Joint pathology, serum antibody production and leukocye activation, cytokine production in the circulation, lymph nodes, and joints were examined. RGSF-A markedly reduced severity of arthritis, cellular infiltration, and cartilage damage. It suppressed CD3(+)/CD69(+), CD4(+)/CD25(+), CD8(+) T-cell, CD19(+), B220/CD23(+) B-cell, MHCII(+)/CD11c(+), and Gr-1(+)/CD11b(+) cell activations. It further suppressed anti-CII- or anti-RF-IgG/IgM, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17, and IL-6 secretions but stimulated IL-10 levels in the serum, joint, or splenocyte. RGSF-A attenuated arthritis severity, modified leukocyte activations, and restored cytokine imbalances, suggesting that it can be considered as an antiarthritic agent with the capacity to ameliorate the immune and inflammatory responses in CIA mice.

Ginseng, the 'Immunity Boost': The Effects of Panax ginseng on Immune System

Thousands of literatures have described the diverse role of ginseng in physiological processes such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, insulin resistance, and hypertension. In particular, ginseng has been extensively reported to maintain homeostasis of the immune system and to enhance resistance to illness or microbial attacks through the regulation of immune system. Immune system comprises of different types of cells fulfilling their own specialized functions, and each type of the immune cells is differentially influenced and may be simultaneously controlled by ginseng treatment. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the effects of ginseng on immune system. We discuss how ginseng regulates each type of immune cells including macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells. We also describe how ginseng exhibits beneficial effects on controlling inflammatory diseases and microbial infections.

Ginsenoside Rp1, a Ginsenoside Derivative, Blocks Promoter Activation of iNOS and COX-2 Genes by Suppression of an IKKβ-mediated NF-кB Pathway in HEK293 Cells

Ginsenoside (G) Rp₁ is a ginseng saponin derivative with anti-cancer and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we examined the mechanism by which G-Rp₁ inhibits inflammatory responses of cells. We did this using a strategy in which DNA constructs containing cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) promoters were transfected into HEK293 cells. G-Rp₁ strongly inhibited the promoter activities of COX-2 and iNOS; it also inhibited lipopolysaccharide induced upregulation of COX-2 and iNOS mRNA levels in RAW264.7 cells. In HEK293 cells G-Rp₁ did not suppress TANK binding kinase 1-, Toll-interleukin-1 receptor-domain-containing adapter-inducing interferon-β (TRIF)-, TRIFrelated adaptor molecule (TRAM)-, or activation of interferon regulatory factor (IRF)-3 and nuclear factor (NF)-кB by the myeloid differentiation primary response gene (MyD88)-induced. However, G-Rp₁ strongly suppressed NF-кB activation induced by IкB kinase (IKK)β in HEK293 cells. Consistent with these results, G-Rp₁ substantially inhibited IKKβ-induced phosphorylation of IкBɑ and p65. These results suggest that G-Rp₁ is a novel anti-inflammatory ginsenoside analog that can be used to treat IKKβ/NF-кB-mediated inflammatory diseases.

Effects of an aqueous extract of North American ginseng on MOG(35-55)-induced EAE in mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system, in which the release of reactive oxygen species by infiltrating immune cells contributes to demyelination. American ginseng ( Panax quinquefolius ) is a natural health product with numerous beneficial properties, including anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effects. The purpose of this study was to determine whether ginseng could influence the course of the disease experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS. C57BL/6J mice were immunized with MOG((35-55)) peptide to induce EAE. After clinical disease appeared, mice received either oral doses of an aqueous extract of ginseng (150 mg/kg body mass), or the vehicle. Clinical symptoms were recorded, and spinal cord tissue samples were analyzed for pathological signs of disease. The aqueous extract of ginseng significantly decreased (i) clinical signs of EAE, (ii) levels of circulating TNF-α, and (iii) central nervous system immunoreactive iNOS and demyelination scores, without a change in other neuropathological measures. This study shows that an aqueous extract of ginseng may be able to attenuate certain signs of EAE, suggesting that it may be a useful adjuvant therapy for MS.

Transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 participates in the inhibitory effect of ginsenoside Rg1 on capsaicin-induced interleukin-8 and prostaglandin E2 production in HaCaT cells

OBJECTIVES

Ginsenoside Rg1 (GRg1), one of the major active constituents of Panax notoginseng, has shown anti-inflammatory and antinocioceptic activity, but its role in keratinocytes needs further study. We have examined the inhibitory effect of GRg1 on transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 (TRPV1) activation in keratinocyte HaCaT cells and explored its involved mechanism.

METHODS

HEK 293T cells over-expressing exogenous TRPV1 were constructed and named HEK 293T-TRPV1 cells. The effects of GRg1 on production of interleukin-8 (IL-8) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2) ), calcium influx, the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) transcriptional activity in HEK 293T-TRPV1 and HaCaT cells were examined by ELISA, Fluo 3-AM fluorescence probe, Western blot and Dual-Luciferase Reporter Assay, respectively.

KEY FINDINGS

The results showed that GRg1 blocked intracellular calcium by both capsaicin and proton activation in a TRPV1-dependent manner. Furthermore, GRg1 inhibited the expression of COX-2 and NF-κB transcriptional activity induced by capsaicin in keratinocytes. The inhibitory effect of GRg1 was similar to capsazepine, an antagonist of TRPV1. More importantly, GRg1 dose-dependently inhibited capsaicin-induced PGE(2) and IL-8 secretion in HaCaT cells and HEK 293T-TRPV1 cells.

CONCLUSIONS

These data showed that GRg1 could inhibit TRPV1 mediated responses in HaCaT cells, indicating that GRg1 acted as a TRPV1 antagonist.

Using 18F-FDG microPET imaging to measure the inhibitory effects of Clematis chinensis Osbeck on the pro-inflammatory and degradative mediators associated with inflammatory arthritis

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study examined the modulating effects of Clematis chinensis Osbeck (Ranunculaeae) on pro-inflammatory and degradative mediators associated with inflammatory arthritis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary human chondrocytes (PHC) were stimulated with IL-1β or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce the enhanced release of prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)), metalloproteinase (MMP-3 and -13), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression. The (18)F-FDG microPET imaging system was used to evaluate the anti-arthritic effects of Clematis chinensisin vivo.

RESULTS

The acetone extracted Clematis chinensis (CC6) contained the most total saponins compared to other solvent's extracts and showed significant and dose-dependent inhibitory effects on PGE(2), MMP-3, -13, and COX-2 productions by LPS-stimulated PHC. Furthermore, CC6 also exerted inhibitory effects on 2-(18)F-fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose ((18)F-FDG) uptake when assessed by positron emission tomography (PET) uptake in the joints and serum PGE(2) of rabbits with knee joints injected with LPS.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest the significant chondroprotective effects of Clematis chinensis are through its anti-inflammatory and MMPs inhibitory abilities. Meanwhile, we established a new analysis method to evaluate the Chinese herbal anti-arthritic effects.

The Yin and Yang actions of North American ginseng root in modulating the immune function of macrophages

Background

Immuno-modulatory effects of ginseng, including both immuno-stimulatory and immuno-suppressive effects, have been widely reported. This study aims to determine whether the paradoxical immuno-modulatory effect is related to unique phytochemical profiles of different North American (NA) ginseng, namely aqueous (AQ) and alcoholic (ALC) extracts.

Methods

AQ and ALC extracts were prepared and their immuno-bioactivity were studied in vitro in murine macrophages (Raw 264.7) through measuring the direct stimulatory production of pro-inflammatory mediator and cytokines as well as the suppression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulatory response by the two extracts. Gel permeation chromatography was used to fractionate and isolate phytochemicals for characterization of ginseng extracts.

Results

AQ extract up-regulated the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) while ALC extract did not. ALC extract but not AQ extract suppressed LPS-induced macrophage NO and TNF-α production. These immuno-stimulatory and suppressive effects were exhibited at similar extract concentrations. Moreover, the macrophage-stimulating activity of the AQ extract was inhibited in the presence of ALC extract. Fractionation of AQ extract revealed the presence of two major peaks at 230 nm with average molecular weights of 73,000 and 37,000 Da. The first fraction had similar elution volume as the crude polysaccharide (PS) fraction isolated from the AQ extract, and it was the only bioactive species. Parallel fractionation study of ALC extract yielded similar elution profiles; however, both sub-fractions were devoid of PS. Fraction I of the ALC extract suppressed LPS-induced NO production dose-dependently.

Conclusion

ALC extract of NA ginseng, which was devoid of PS, was immuno-inhibitory whereas the AQ extract, which contained PS, was immuno-stimulatory. These extract-related anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory effects may be considered as the Yin and Yang actions of ginseng.

Ginsenoside Rb1 and its metabolite compound K inhibit IRAK-1 activation--the key step of inflammation

In the preliminary study, ginsenoside Rb1, a main constituent of the root of Panax ginseng (family Araliaceae), and its metabolite compound K inhibited a key factor of inflammation, nuclear transcription factor κB (NF-κB) activation, in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. When ginsenoside Rb1 or compound K were orally administered to 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfuric acid (TNBS)-induced colitic mice, these agents inhibited colon shortening, macroscopic score, and colonic thickening. Furthermore, treatment with ginsenoside Rb1 or compound K at 20mg/kg inhibited colonic myeloperoxidase activity by 84% and 88%, respectively, as compared with TNBS alone (p<0.05), and also potently inhibited the expression of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, but increased the expression of IL-10. Both ginsenoside Rb1 and compound K blocked the TNBS-induced expressions of COX-2 and iNOS and the activation of NF-κB in mice. When ginsenoside Rb1 or compound K was treated in LPS-induced murine peritoneal macrophages, these agents potently inhibited the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines. Ginsenoside Rb1 and compound K also significantly inhibited the activation of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase-1 (IRAK-1), IKK-β, NF-κB, and MAP kinases (ERK, JNK, and p-38); however, interaction between LPS and Toll-like receptor-4, IRAK-4 activation and IRAK-2 activation were unaffected. Furthermore, compound K inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines more potently than did those of ginsenoside Rb1. On the basis of these findings, ginsenosides, particularly compounds K, could be used to treat inflammatory diseases, such as colitis, by targeting IRAK-1 activation.