Anti-inflammatory activity of (−)-aptosimon isolated from Daphne genkwa in RAW264.7 cells

Daphne genkwa: Ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of an important traditional Chinese medicine

Daphne genkwa, as a traditional medicine, is widely distributed in China, Korea and Vietnam. In China, the dried flower buds of this plant are named "Yuanhua". It has the ability to effectively promote urination, eliminate phlegm and alleviate cough, eliminate parasites and cure of scabies, with a broad spectrum of pharmacological effects and considerable clinical efficacy. This paper provides a summary and classification of the main chemical constituents of D. genkwa based on a review of relevant domestic and foreign literature. It also outlines the current research status of traditional clinical usage, pharmacological effects, and toxicity of D. genkwa. The aim is to provide a theoretical basis for further study of D. genkwa and its potential new clinical applications.

Betulin-rich hydroalcoholic extract of Daphne oleoides attenuates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rat

Background and objective

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a chronic and progressive respiratory disease representing the final stage of lung inflammatory disorders. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), an essential factor in the formation and progression of pulmonary fibrosis, are a significant adverse effect of Bleomycin (BLM). Antioxidant activities have been found in Daphne oleoides. In this study, we attempted to explore the function of hydroalcoholic extract of Daphne oleoides (D. oleoides) and Betulin in inhibiting bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis in rat".

Materials and methods

The current experimental study used 36 male Wistar rats (180-220). Following a random process, the animals were divided into six groups six (n = 6). Group, I (the control group) received normal saline, while Group II (the hazardous group) received intratracheal BLM (7.5 units per kg). Following the administration of BLM, Groups V and VI received daily doses of vitamin E (500 mg/kg/d, p.o.) and Betulin (10 mg kg/d, p.o.), whereas Groups III and IV received daily doses of Daphne oleoides extract (300 and 600 mg/kg/d, p.o.). Then, blood samples from the hearts of the animals were taken to assess the plasma concentrations of nitric oxide (NO) and malondialdehyde (MDA). Finally, the rats were euthanized, and the lung tissues were taken out for histological analysis and assessments of the levels of lung hydroxyproline (HP), ferric-reducing ability (FRAP), NO, Glutathione Concentration (GSH), thiol content (tSH) and MDA.

Findings

Elevated lung index, lung hydroxyproline, NO, and MDA plasma levels, and a reduction in total body thiol content (tSH) in the group receiving BLM were evidence of pulmonary toxicity. Treatment with D. oleoides extracts, Betulin, and Vit E, especially at 600 mg/kg, led to a marked reduction in the above parameters compared with the BLM-received group (p < 0.01). Histological Analysis of the BLM-treated group showed a considerable Lung injury with interstitial infiltration, collapsed alveolar spaces, and alveolar septal thickening. These changes were mitigated with D. oleoides 600, Betulin-, and vitamin E. These changes were mitigated with D. oleoides 600, Betulin-, and vitamin E.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that D. oleoides and Betulin prevent bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis in rats by decreasing inflammatory and antioxidant markers. Daphne oleoides, therefore, have the potential to be used therapeutically to treat pulmonary fibrosis.

Efficient Plant Regeneration System from Leaf Explant Cultures of Daphne genkwa via Somatic Embryogenesis

This study aimed to establish an efficient plant regeneration system from leaf-derived embryogenic structure cultures of Daphne genkwa. To induce embryogenic structures, fully expanded leaf explants of D. genkwa were cultured on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, and 5 mg·L^-1 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), respectively. After 8 weeks of incubation, the highest frequency of embryogenic structure formation reached 100% when the leaf explants were cultivated on MS medium supplemented with 0.1 to 1 mg·L^-1 2,4-D. At higher concentrations of 2,4-D (over 2 mg·L^-1 2,4-D), the frequency of embryogenic structure formation significantly declined. Similar to 2,4-D, indole butyric acid (IBA) and α-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) treatments were also able to form embryogenic structures. However, the frequency of embryogenic structure formation was lower than that of 2,4-D. In particular, the yellow embryonic structure (YES) and white embryonic structure (WES) were simultaneously developed from the leaf explants of D. genkwa on culture medium containing 2,4-D, IBA, and NAA, respectively. Embryogenic calluses (ECs) were formed from the YES after subsequent rounds of subculture on MS medium supplemented with 1 mg·L^-1 2,4-D. To regenerate whole plants, the embryogenic callus (EC) and the two embryogenic structures (YES and WES) were transferred onto MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg·L^-1 6-benzyl aminopurine (BA). The YES had the highest plant regeneration potential via somatic embryo and shoot development compared to the EC and WES. To our knowledge, this is the first successful report of a plant regeneration system via the somatic embryogenesis of D. genkwa. Thus, the embryogenic structures and plant regeneration system of D. genkwa could be applied to mass proliferation and genetic modification for pharmaceutical metabolite production in D. genkwa.

Identification of Daphne genkwa and Its Vinegar-Processed Products by Ultraperformance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry and Chemometrics

Crude herbs of Daphne genkwa (CHDG) are often used in traditional Chinese medicine to treat scabies baldness, carbuncles, and chilblain owing to their significant purgation and curative effects. The most common technique for processing DG involves the use of vinegar to reduce the toxicity of CHDG and enhance its clinical efficacy. Vinegar-processed DG (VPDG) is used as an internal medicine to treat chest and abdominal water accumulation, phlegm accumulation, asthma, and constipation, among other diseases. In this study, the changes in the chemical composition of CHDG after vinegar processing and the inner components of the changed curative effects were elucidated using optimized ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). Untargeted metabolomics, based on multivariate statistical analyses, was also used to profile differences between CHDG and VPDG. Eight marker compounds were identified using orthogonal partial least-squares discrimination analysis, which indicated significant differences between CHDG and VPDG. The concentrations of apigenin-7-O-β-d-methylglucuronate and hydroxygenkwanin were considerably higher in VPDG than those in CHDG, whereas the amounts of caffeic acid, quercetin, tiliroside, naringenin, genkwanines O, and orthobenzoate 2 were significantly lower. The obtained results can indicate the transformation mechanisms of certain changed compounds. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to employ mass spectrometry to detect the marker components of CHDG and VPDG.

Daphne genkwa flower extract promotes the neuroprotective effects of microglia

BACKGROUND

Microglia are innate immune cells in the central nervous system that play a crucial role in neuroprotection by releasing neurotrophic factors, removing pathogens through phagocytosis, and regulating brain homeostasis. The constituents extracted from the roots and stems of the Daphne genkwa plant have shown neuroprotective effects in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. However, the effect of Daphne genkwa plant extract on microglia has yet to be demonstrated.

PURPOSE

To study the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of Daphne genkwa flower extract (GFE) in microglia and explore the underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

In-vitro mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), inducible nitric oxide synthase, Arginase1, and brain derived neurotropic factor (BDNF) were analyzed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction in microglia cells. Nitric oxide (NO) and TNF-α protein were respectively analyzed by Griess reagent and Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Immunoreactivity of Iba-1, Neu-N, and BDNF in mouse brain were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining. Phagocytosis capacity of microglia was examined using fluorescent zymosan-red particles.

RESULTS

GFE significantly inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation and promoted neuroprotection both in vitro and in vivo. First, GFE inhibited the LPS-induced inflammatory factors NO, iNOS, and TNF-α in microglial cell lines and primary glial cells, thus demonstrating anti-inflammatory effects. Arginase1 and BDNF mRNA levels were increased in primary glial cells treated with GFE. Phagocytosis was also increased in microglia treated with GFE, suggesting a neuroprotective effect of GFE. In vivo, neuroprotective and anti-neuroinflammatory effects of GFE were also found in the mouse brain, as oral administration of GFE significantly inhibited LPS-induced neuronal loss and inflammatory activation of microglia.

CONCLUSION

GFE has anti-inflammatory effects and promotes microglial neuroprotective effects. GFE inhibited the pro-inflammatory mediators and enhanced neuroprotective microglia activity by increasing BDNF expression and phagocytosis. These novel findings of the GFE effect on microglia show an innovative approach that can potentially promote neuroprotection for the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases.

Exploring the Molecular Mechanism of Zhi Bai Di Huang Wan in the Treatment of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus Based on Network Pharmacology and Molecular Docking Techniques

Objective: To investigate the molecular mechanism and simulated validation of Zhi Bai Di Huang Pill (ZBDHP) for the treatment of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) using network pharmacology and molecular docking techniques. Methods: The active ingredients of ZBDHP were obtained through the TCMSP database and the Canonical SMILES of the active ingredients were queried through Pubchem. The targets of the active ingredients were predicted in the SwissTarget database based on the SMILES. The SLE-related disease targets were obtained through the GeneCards, OMIM and DisGenets databases, and the intersection targets of ZBDHP and SLE were obtained using the Venny 2.1.0 online platform. Intersection targets build a visual protein interaction network (PPI) through the STRING database, and the core targets were identified by network topology analysis. GO analysis and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis of the intersecting targets were performed using the DAVID database. Finally, the molecular docking of the first four active ingredients and the first four core target genes were verified by Pubchem, the PDB database and CB-Dock online molecular docking technology. Results: ZBDHP screened 91 potential active ingredients and 816 potential targets. Among them, 141 genes were intersected by ZBDHP and SLE. The network topology analysis showed that the main active ingredients were Hydroxygenkwanin, Alisol B, asperglaucide, Cerevisterol, etc., and the key target genes were TNF, AKT1, EGFR, STAT3, etc. GO and KEGG enrichment analysis showed that common targets interfere with biological processes or molecular functions such as signal transduction protein phosphorylation, inflammatory response, transmembrane receptor protein tyrosine kinase activity, etc., through multiple signaling pathways, such as pathways in cancer, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus infection, the PI3K-Akt signaling pathway, lipid and atherosclerosis, hepatitis B, etc. Molecular docking results showed that the active components of ZBDHP have good binding activity to the core targets of SLE. Conclusions: This study reveals that the ZBDHP treatment of SLE is a complex mechanistic process with multi-components, multi-targets and multi-pathways, and it may play a therapeutic role in SLE by inhibiting the production, proliferation and apoptosis of inflammatory factors. In conclusion, the present study provides a theoretical basis for further research on ZBDHP.

Daphne jejudoensis Attenuates LPS-Induced Inflammation by Inhibiting TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, iNOS, and COX-2 Expression in Periodontal Ligament Cells

Periodontitis is a common disease involving inflammation and tissue destruction in the periodontal region. Although uncontrolled long-term inflammation in the gingiva may lead to loss of the periodontal ligament, treatments or preventive solutions for periodontitis are scarce. The aim of this study is to find anti-inflammatory material from a natural source that can be used to treat or protect against periodontitis. Daphne species (Thymelaeaceae) are important and popular components of traditional Chinese medicine and are used as anti-inflammatory agents. Daphne jejudoensis is an endemic plant that grows on Jeju Island and was identified as a new species in 2013. In this study, for the first time, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of D. jejudoensis leaf extract (DJLE) on human periodontal ligament cells. The gene expression levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin-1β and 6 and tumor necrosis factor-α) and inflammation-inducible enzymes (inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2) were reduced after DJLE treatment with/without lipopolysaccharide stimulation. The findings of this study indicate that D. jejudoensis possesses anti-inflammatory activities, suggesting that DJLE may be a potential preventive and therapeutic agent for periodontitis.

Risk assessment of the inhibition of hydroxygenkwanin on human and rat cytochrome P450 by cocktail method

Hydroxygenkwanin (HGK), a natural flavonoid extracted from the buds of Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. (Thymelaeaceae), possesses a wide range of pharmacological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antibacterial and anticancer. However, the inhibitory effect of HGK on cytochrome P450 (CYP) remains unclear. This study investigated the potential inhibitory effects of HGK on CYP1A2, 2B1/6, 2C9/11, 2D1/6, 2E1 and 3A2/4 enzymes in human and rat liver microsomes (HLMs and RLMs) by the cocktail approach. HGK exhibited no time-dependent inhibition of CYP activities in HLMs and RLMs. Enzyme inhibition kinetics indicated that HGK was not only a competitive inhibitor of human CYP1A2 and 2C9, but also competitively inhibited rat CYP1A2 and 2C11 activities, with K_i value at 0.84 ± 0.03, 8.09 ± 0.44, 2.68 ± 0.32 and 8.35 ± 0.31 μM, respectively. Further studies showed that the inhibitory effect of HGK on CYP enzymes was weaker than that of diosmetin, which may be related to the substitution of hydroxyl and methoxy in the A and B rings of the flavone skeleton. Therefore, the low K_i values of HGK for CYP1A2 and 2C may lead to potential drug-drug interactions and toxicity.

Comprehensive evaluation on anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities in vitro of fourteen flavonoids from Daphne Genkwa based on the combination of efficacy coefficient method and principal component analysis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genkwa flos, as a traditional herb, is the dried flower buds of Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. It is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of cough, sore throats, edema.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study aimed to explore a new mathematical method for multivariate evaluation, investigate the anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities of flavonoids in Daphne Genkwa under ex vivo conditions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The flavonoids monomers in Daphne Genkwa were separated by preparative liquid chromatography and identified by HPLC-ESI-ITMS. An in vitro inflammatory model of macrophage RAW264.7 induced by LPS and an angiogenesis model of human umbilical vein endothelial cells induced by TNF-α were established. Flavonoids were extracted and prepared for intervention to detect the amount of secretion after drug intervention to reflect the anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities of each component. In addition, a new mathematical method, which combined principal component analysis and efficacy coefficient method, was adopted in pharmacodynamic evaluation.

RESULTS

Fourteen flavonoids monomers were separated by preparative liquid chromatography and identified by HPLC-ESI-ITMS including H1 (hydroxygenkwanin-5-O-β-D-glucoside), H2 (apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucoside), H3 (kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside), H4 (hydroxygenkwanin-5-O-β-D-primeveroside), H5 (apigenin-5-O-β-D-primeveroside), H6 (apigenin-7-O-β-D-glucuronide), H7 (luteolin-5-O-β-D-glucopyranoside), H8 (genkwain-5-O-β-D- glucoside), H9 (luteolin), H10 (Daphnodorin G), H11 (tiliroside), H12 (apigenin), H13 (3'- hydroxygenkwain) and H14 (genkwanin). We found that most of flavonoids down-regulated VCAM and MMP-3, while H1, H8, H9, H14 reduced VEGF and ICAM was only decreased by H14.

CONCLUSION

Genkwanin may be the most active anti-rheumatoid arthritis flavonoids in Daphne genkwa. Meanwhile, the new mathematical method used in the study provided a new direction for solving the problem of multi-index pharmacodynamic evaluation.

Anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects of flavonoids from Daphne genkwa

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to select the most effective anti-Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) component of flavonoids from Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc. by anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects in vitro, and to elucidate the mechanism.

METHODS

The anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects of total flavonoids (TF) and four flavonoid components (genkwanin, hydroxygenkwanin, luteolin and apigenin) were determined by pharmacological approach in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages and ConA-induced T lymphocytes. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to obtain the optimal anti-RA component in vitro. Western blot and real-time quantitative PCR (q-PCR) were used to explore the mechanisms. Finally, the in vitro anti-RA effect was verified by human rheumatoid arthritis fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs).

RESULTS

TF and four flavonoids significantly reduced the expressions of NO, iNOS, TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ and IL-2. PCA showed that genkwanin was the most effective anti-RA component in vitro. Genkwanin inhibited nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway by decreasing the phosphorylation levels of IKK, IκB and NF-κB, and down-regulated the expressions of iNOS, COX-2 and IL-6 mRNA. Genkwanin also inhibited the abnormal proliferation of FLSs and down-regulated the secretions of NO and IL-6.

CONCLUSION

The most effective anti-RA component was genkwanin. Genkwanin exerts anti-RA effect through down-regulating the activation of NF-κB pathway and mRNA expressions of inflammatory mediators, and also by inhibiting the abnormal proliferation of FLSs and its NO and IL-6 secretion levels.

The genus Daphne: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology

The genus Daphne belongs to the Thymeleaceae family and contains over 90 species that are distributed in Asia, Europe and parts of North Africa. The species of the genus Daphne are used in the traditional medicine of China, Tibet, Korea, and the Middle East for the treatment of various conditions. A broad range of studies has shown the significant biological potential of these species as sources of biologically and pharmacologically active compounds. Daphne species are a source of several classes of valuable phytochemicals such as coumarins, flavonoids, lignans, steroids and different classes of terpenes. The phytochemical diversity of this genus is demonstrated by over 350 secondary metabolites isolated from various species. The genus possesses a broad spectrum of biological activities including antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, antiviral, abortive and haemostatic effects. A variety of bioactive secondary metabolites found in this genus may have potential use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and food industries. Thus, species belonging to the genus Daphne can be considered an important source both for the treatment of various disorders, due to the presence of a plethora of bioactive constituents with potent bioactivities, and as possible leads in the discovery and synthesis of new medications.

Hydroxygenkwanin Suppresses Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Progression by Enhancing EGFR Degradation

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) is frequently overexpressed and mutated in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which is the major type of lung cancer. The EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) are the approved treatment for patients harboring activating mutations in the EGFR kinase. However, most of the patients treated with EGFR-TKIs developed resistance. Therefore, the development of compounds exhibiting unique antitumor activities might help to improve the management of NSCLC patients. The total flavonoids from Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc. have been shown to contain antitumor activity. Here, we have isolated a novel flavonoid hydroxygenkwanin (HGK) that displays selective cytotoxic effects on all of the NSCLC cells tested. In this study, we employed NSCLC cells harboring EGFR mutations and xenograft mouse model to examine the antitumor activity of HGK on TKI-resistant NSCLC cells. The results showed that HGK suppressed cancer cell viability both in vitro and in vivo. Whole-transcriptome analysis suggests that EGFR is a potential upstream regulator that is involved in the gene expression changes affected by HGK. In support of this analysis, we presented evidence that HGK reduced the level of EGFR and inhibited several EGFR-downstream signalings. These results suggest that the antitumor activity of HGK against TKI-resistant NSCLC cells acts by enhancing the degradation of EGFR.

Wound Healing and the Use of Medicinal Plants

Cutaneous wound healing is the process by which skin repairs itself. It is generally accepted that cutaneous wound healing can be divided into 4 phases: haemostasis, inflammation, proliferation, and remodelling. In humans, keratinocytes re-form a functional epidermis (reepithelialization) as rapidly as possible, closing the wound and reestablishing tissue homeostasis. Dermal fibroblasts migrate into the wound bed and proliferate, creating “granulation tissue” rich in extracellular matrix proteins and supporting the growth of new blood vessels. Ultimately, this is remodelled over an extended period, returning the injured tissue to a state similar to that before injury. Dysregulation in any phase of the wound healing cascade delays healing and may result in various skin pathologies, including nonhealing, or chronic ulceration. Indigenous and traditional medicines make extensive use of natural products and derivatives of natural products and provide more than half of all medicines consumed today throughout the world. Recognising the important role traditional medicine continues to play, we have undertaken an extensive survey of literature reporting the use of medical plants and plant-based products for cutaneous wounds. We describe the active ingredients, bioactivities, clinical uses, formulations, methods of preparation, and clinical value of 36 medical plant species. Several species stand out, including Centella asiatica, Curcuma longa, and Paeonia suffruticosa, which are popular wound healing products used by several cultures and ethnic groups. The popularity and evidence of continued use clearly indicates that there are still lessons to be learned from traditional practices. Hidden in the myriad of natural products and derivatives from natural products are undescribed reagents, unexplored combinations, and adjunct compounds that could have a place in the contemporary therapeutic inventory.

Anti-inflammatory effect of pomegranate flower in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages

CONTEXT

Punica granatum L (Punicaceae) flower is an important diabetes treatment in oriental herbal medicine.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigates the inflammation effects of pomegranate flower (PFE) ethanol extract in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PFE (10, 25, 50, 100 μg/mL) was applied to 1 μg/mL LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages in vitro. Levels of nitric oxide (NO), prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) and pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1β (IL-1β), interleukin (IL)-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) in the supernatant fraction were determined using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) subgroups extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and P38, as well as nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation in extracts were detected via Western blot.

RESULTS

10-100 μg/mL PFE decreased the production of NO (IC₅₀ value = 31.8 μg/mL), PGE₂ (IC₅₀ value = 54.5 μg/mL), IL-6 (IC₅₀ value = 48.7 μg/mL), IL-1β (IC₅₀ value = 71.3 μg/mL) and TNF-α (IC₅₀ value = 62.5 μg/mL) in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 cells significantly. A mechanism-based study showed that phosphorylation of ERK1/2, p38, JNK and translocation of the NF-B p65 subunit into nuclei were inhibited by the PFE treatment.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

These results show that PFE produced potential anti-inflammatory effect through modulating the synthesis of several mediators and cytokines involved in the inflammatory process.

Relationship between the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS fingerprinted constituents from Daphne genkwa and their anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant activities

Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. is a well-known medicinal plant. This study was designed to apply the ultra-high performance liquid chromatography system to establish a quality control method for D. genkwa. Data revealed that there were 15 common peaks in 10 batches of D. genkwa Sieb. Et Zucc. (Thymelaeaceae) from different provinces of China. On this basis, the fingerprint chromatogram was established to provide references for quality control. Afterwards, the chemical constitutions of these common peaks were analyzed using the UPLC-Q-TOF-MS system and nine of them were identified. In addition, LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 murine macrophages and DPPH assay were used to study the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidation effects of D. genkwa. Then the fingerprint-efficacy relationships between UPLC fingerprints and pharmacodynamic data were studied with canonical correlation analysis. Analysis results indicated that the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidation effects differed among the 10 D. genkwa samples owing to their inherent differences of chemical compositions. Taken together, this research established a fingerprint-efficacy relationship model of D. genkwa plant by combining the UPLC analytic technique and pharmacological research, which provided references for the detection of the principal components of traditional Chinese medicine on bioactivity.

Chinese herbal medicines as a source of molecules with anti-enterovirus 71 activity

Enterovirus 71 (EV71) is one of the causative agents of hand, foot, and mouth disease (HFMD), which sometimes leads to severe neurological disease and death in the Asia-Pacific region. In Chinese medicine, HFMD is caused mainly by an accumulation of damp-heat and toxicity in the body. No effective drugs are currently available for the treatment and prevention of EV71 infection. This review summarizes the potential Chinese herbal extracts and isolated compounds with antiviral activity against EV71 and their clinical applications, especially those categorized as heat-clearing and detoxifying.

Antitumor Activity of Total Flavonoids from Daphne genkwa in Colorectal Cancer

Daphne genkwa Sieb.et Zucc. is a well-known medicinal plant. This study was designed to investigate the anticancer effects of total flavonoids in D. genkwa (TFDG) in vitro and in vivo. HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells were cultured to investigate the anticancer activity of TFDG. In addition, the Apc(Min/+) mouse model was applied in the in vivo experiment. Results of the cell experiment revealed that TFDG possessed significant inhibitory effects on HT-29 and SW-480 human colorectal cancer cells (both p < 0.01). Furthermore, our in vivo data showed that after treatment with TFDG, there was a significant increase in life span (both p < 0.01) and tumor numbers were reduced in the colon (both p < 0.01), which was supported by the data of tumor distribution, body weight changes and organ index. Our results also indicated that expressions of interleukin (IL)-1α, IL-1β, IL-6, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor in gut tissue were downregulated by treatments of TFDG, and immunity cytokine secretions in the serum were regulated after oral administration of TFDG. Taken together, these findings suggested that TFDG has a potential clinical utility in colorectal cancer therapeutics, and TFDG's action is likely linked to its ability to regulate immune function and inhibit the production of inflammatory cytokines.

Assessment of the embryotoxicity of four Chinese herbal extracts using the embryonic stem cell test

Rhizoma Atractylodes macrocephala, Radix Isatidis, Coptis chinensis and Flos Genkwa are common herbal remedies used by pregnant woman in China. In this study, their potential embryotoxicity was assessed using the embryonic stem cell test (EST) and a prediction model. The potential embryotoxicity of the herbs was based on three endpoints: the concentrations of the compounds that inhibited the proliferation of 50% of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) (IC50ES), the concentrations that inhibited 50% of 3T3 cells (IC503T3), and the concentrations that inhibited the differentiation of 50% of ESCs (ID50ES). The results revealed that Rhizoma Atractylodes macrocephala and Radix Isatidis are non-embryotoxic compounds. Coptis chinensis extracts appeared to demonstrated weak embryotoxicity, and Flos Genkwa exhibited strong embryotoxicity. These results may be useful in guiding the clinical use of these herbs and in expanding the application of the EST to the field of traditional Chinese medicine.

Anti-rheumatoid arthritic activity of flavonoids from Daphne genkwa

The aim of the study was to investigate the anti-rheumatoid arthritic activity of four flavonoids from Daphne genkwa (FFD) in vivo and in vitro. Flavonoids of D. genkwa were extracted by refluxing with ethanol and purified by polyamide resin. An in vivo carrageenan-induced paw edema model, tampon-granuloma model and Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA)-induced arthritis mouse model were used to evaluate the anti-rheumatoid arthritic activities of FFD. Moreover, nitric oxide (NO) release and neutral red uptake (NRU) in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced murine macrophage RAW264.7 cells were used to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effect in vitro. In addition, antioxidant effect of FFD was determined using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method. A high dose of FFD significantly reduced the degree of acute inflammatory paw edema in mice as a response to carrageenan administration (p<0.01). FFD displayed a dose-dependent inhibition of granuloma formation in mice (p<0.05). FFD also inhibited chronic inflammation in adjuvant-induced arthritis rats when administered orally at the dose of 50mg/kg/day (p<0.001). In addition, FFD suppressed the production of NO and exhibited immunoregulatory function in LPS-activated RAW264.7 cells in a dose-related manner. Simultaneously, FFD revealed conspicuous antioxidant activity with IC50 values of 18.20μg/ml. FFD possesses significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, which could be a potential therapeutic agent for chronic inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.

Antioxidant effects of Genkwa flos flavonoids on Freund׳s adjuvant-induced rheumatoid arthritis in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Genkwa flos (Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc.), a Chinese herbal medicine, has been traditionally used for over two thousand years in China for inflammation related symptoms, including joint pain. To evaluate the antioxidative effects of flavonoid aglycones (FA) isolated from Genkwa flos on adjuvant arthritis in rats and to identify the relationship between antioxidant potential and whole blood viscosity (WBV).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

FA compounds were identified using LC-MS and the content was assayed by HPLC. Arthritis was induced by an intradermal injection of Freund׳s complete adjuvant in the footpad. The effects of FA on paw volumes, secondary arthritis scores, histopathology of joints, and body and organ weights were measured. The antioxidant effects of FA and WBV were determined.

RESULTS

LC-MS analysis showed that the FA contained four major compounds: luteolin, apigenin, hydroxygenkwanin and genkwanin. FA significantly decreased paw edema, arthritis scores, and weight loss. These observations were consistent with the reduction of oxidative stress and the improvement of the WBV.

CONCLUSION

FA significantly decreased arthritis in a rat model through antioxidant and hemorheological modulatory mechanisms. The Genkwa flos flavonoids may have clinical potential for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

STUDIES ON A SIMPLE AND EFFICIENT METHOD FOR LARGE-SCALE PREPARATION OF GENKWANIN FROM DAPHNE GENKWA SIEB. ET ZUCC. USING NORMAL-PHASE FLASH CHROMATOGRAPHY

Genkwanin, a flavonoid which has anti-oxidant and anti-tumor activities, was isolated and purified from flowers of Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc. in a large-scale by normal-phase flash chromatography (NPFC). Dried flower buds were extracted with methanol at room temperature and concentrated. The residues were suspended in water and first extracted with petroleum ether, and then chloroform. Genkwanin was concentrated in the chloroform and insoluble fractions. Under the target-guidance of thin layer chromatography (TLC) as well as solubility, a solvent system composed of cyclohexane-acetone (22:3, v/v) was selected. At a flow rate of 30 mL/min,the insoluble and chloroform fractions were separated to yield 1.5 g and 1.35 g of genkwanin with high purities of 98.3% and 98.6% by HPLC analysis, respectively. The chemical structure of the compound was identified by ESI-MS and NMR. Results of the present study indicated that NPFC was a large preparative-scale, speedy and simple process separation technology and it was feasible to find the appropriate proportion of solvent system by transformation from TLC condition.

Anti-inflammatory effects of prosapogenin III from the dried roots of Liriope platyphylla in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells

Liriope platyphylla has been reported to possess various biological activities, including anti-asthma, anti-inflammation, anti-diabetes, and neuriotogenic properties. In this study, we evaluated the effects of prosapogenin III isolated from the roots of L. platyphylla (Liriopis Tuber) on inflammatory responses in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. We investigated LPS-induced production/expression of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide (NO), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxigenase-2 (COX-2), and proinflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin (IL)-6 in RAW264.7 cells. We also performed Western blot analysis for determination of the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2, p38, and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) in LPS-stimulated cells. Treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in significant inhibition of NO production in LPS-stimulated Raw264.7 cells through suppression of iNOS expression. Treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in a significant decrease in expressions of COX-2, IL-1β, and IL-6 through down-regulation of their mRNA or protein in LPS-stimulated cells. In addition, treatment with prosapogenin III resulted in potently inhibited phosphorylation of three MAPKs, including ERK1/2, p38, and JNK in LPS-stimulated cells. Treatment with prosapogenin III also resulted in suppression of the nuclear translocation of NF-κB in LPS-stimulated cells. These results indicate that prosapogenin III of Liriopis Tuber has anti-inflammatory effects in activated macrophages through inhibition of production of inflammatory mediators by blockade of the MAPK/NF-κB pathway.

Efficacy of Daphne oleoides subsp. kurdica used for wound healing: identification of active compounds through bioassay guided isolation technique

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Turkish traditional medicine, the aerial parts of Daphne oleoides Schreber subsp. kurdica (DOK) have been used to treat malaria, rheumatism and for wound healing. The aim was to evaluate the ethnopharmacological usage of the plant using in vivo and in vitro pharmacological experimental models, and to perform bioassay-guided fractionation of the 85% methanolic extract of DOK for the isolation and identification of active wound-healing component(s) and to elucidate possible mechanism of the wound-healing activity.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In vivo wound-healing activity was evaluated by the linear incision and the circular excision wound models. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, which are known to support the wound healing process, were also assessed by the Whittle method and the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical-scavenging assays, respectively. The total phenolic content of the extract and subextracts was estimated to establish any correlation between the phenolic content and the antioxidant activity. The methanolic extract of DOK was subjected to various chromatographic separation techniques leading to the isolation and identification of the active component(s). Furthermore, in vitro hyaluronidase, collagenase and elastase enzymes inhibitory activity assays were conducted on the active components to explore the activity pathways of the remedy.

RESULTS

After confirmation of the wound-healing activity, the methanolic extract was subjected to successive solvent partitioning using solvents of increasing polarity creating five subextracts. Each subextract was tested on the same biological activity model and the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) subextract had the highest activity. The EtOAc subextract was subjected to further chromatographic separation for the isolation of components 1, 2 and 3. The structures of these compounds were elucidated as daphnetin (1), demethyldaphnoretin 7-O-glucoside (2) and luteolin-7-O-glucoside (3). Further in vivo testing revealed that luteolin-7-O-glucoside was responsible for the wound-healing activity of the aerial parts. It was also found to exert significant anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-hyaluronidase and anti-collagenase activities.

CONCLUSION

The present study explored the wound-healing potential of Daphne oleoides subsp. kurdica. Through bioassay-guided fractionation and isolation techniques, luteolin-7-O-glucoside was determined as the main active component of the aerial parts. This compound exerts its activity through inhibition of hyaluronidase and collagenase enzymes activity as well as interfering with the inflammatory stage.

Daphne Genkwa sieb. Et zucc. Water-soluble extracts act on enterovirus 71 by inhibiting viral entry

Dried flowers of Daphne genkwa Sieb. et Zucc. (Thymelaeaceae) are a Chinese herbal medicine used as an abortifacient with purgative, diuretic and anti-inflammatory activities. However, the activity of this medicine against enteroviral infections has not been investigated. The water-extract of dried buds of D. genkwa Sieb. et Zucc. (DGFW) was examined against various strains of enterovirus 71 (EV71) by neutralization assay, and its initial mode of action was characterized by time-of-addition assay followed by attachment and penetration assays. Pretreatment of DGFW with virus abolished viral replication, indicating that DGFW inhibits EV71 by targeting the virus. GFW exerts its anti-EV71 effects by inhibiting viral entry without producing cytotoxic side effects and thus provides a potential agent for antiviral chemotherapeutics.

The Yin and Yang actions of North American ginseng root in modulating the immune function of macrophages

Background

Immuno-modulatory effects of ginseng, including both immuno-stimulatory and immuno-suppressive effects, have been widely reported. This study aims to determine whether the paradoxical immuno-modulatory effect is related to unique phytochemical profiles of different North American (NA) ginseng, namely aqueous (AQ) and alcoholic (ALC) extracts.

Methods

AQ and ALC extracts were prepared and their immuno-bioactivity were studied in vitro in murine macrophages (Raw 264.7) through measuring the direct stimulatory production of pro-inflammatory mediator and cytokines as well as the suppression of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulatory response by the two extracts. Gel permeation chromatography was used to fractionate and isolate phytochemicals for characterization of ginseng extracts.

Results

AQ extract up-regulated the production of nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) while ALC extract did not. ALC extract but not AQ extract suppressed LPS-induced macrophage NO and TNF-α production. These immuno-stimulatory and suppressive effects were exhibited at similar extract concentrations. Moreover, the macrophage-stimulating activity of the AQ extract was inhibited in the presence of ALC extract. Fractionation of AQ extract revealed the presence of two major peaks at 230 nm with average molecular weights of 73,000 and 37,000 Da. The first fraction had similar elution volume as the crude polysaccharide (PS) fraction isolated from the AQ extract, and it was the only bioactive species. Parallel fractionation study of ALC extract yielded similar elution profiles; however, both sub-fractions were devoid of PS. Fraction I of the ALC extract suppressed LPS-induced NO production dose-dependently.

Conclusion

ALC extract of NA ginseng, which was devoid of PS, was immuno-inhibitory whereas the AQ extract, which contained PS, was immuno-stimulatory. These extract-related anti-inflammatory and pro-inflammatory effects may be considered as the Yin and Yang actions of ginseng.