Paeoniflorin improves survival in LPS-challenged mice through the suppression of TNF-α and IL-1β release and augmentation of IL-10 production

Exploration of the Combined Mechanism of Direct and Indirect Effects of Paeoniflorin in the Treatment of Cholestasis

Cholestasis is a multifactorial hepatobiliary disorder, characterized by obstruction of bile flow and accumulation of bile, which in turn causes damage to liver cells and other tissues. In severe cases, it can result in the development of life-threatening conditions, including cirrhosis and liver cancer. Paeoniflorin (PF) has been demonstrated to possess favourable therapeutic potential for the treatment of cholestasis. The objective of this research was to examine the molecular mechanism of PF in the treatment of ANIT-induced cholestasis and to propose novel avenues for further research on the pharmacological effects of PF. In vivo and in vitro models of cholestasis were developed. The histopathological changes in the bile ducts and liver were evaluated through the use of hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining. The extent of apoptosis was evaluated through the use of immunofluorescence (IF), immunoblotting (WB), and electron microscopy. The JNK signalling pathway was identified as the direct mechanism of action of PF through the utilisation of HuProt™ 20 K chips and other technologies. The present study demonstrated that PF markedly alleviated liver injury in an ANIT-induced cholestasis model. Specifically, PF was observed to attenuate cholestasis-induced liver injury by reducing the abnormal elevation of liver function indices and suppressing the expression of inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, PF exhibited anti-apoptotic properties in both in vivo and in vitro experiments, thereby mitigating cholestasis-induced hepatocyte apoptosis. These protective effects are attributable to the fact that PF exerts its action through direct interaction with the JNK pathway. It has been demonstrated that PF is capable of binding directly to MAPK8 (JNK1) and MAPK9 (JNK2), thereby inhibiting JNK activation and reducing apoptosis. With regard to the protection of bile ducts, PF may indirectly inhibit hepatocyte apoptosis by maintaining the structural integrity and tight junctions of bile duct cells. PF improved cholestasis by inhibiting hepatocyte apoptosis directly by targeting the JNK signaling pathway and indirectly inhibited hepatocyte apoptosis by improving the tight junctions of bile duct cells to regulate the bile duct microenvironment.

Shakuyaku-Kanzo-To Prevents Angiotensin Ⅱ-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy in Neonatal Rat Ventricular Myocytes

The global incidence of mortality due to heart failure (HF) is on the rise, presenting a significant challenge in various regions, including Japan. There is an urgent need for innovative prevention and treatment strategies to address this issue. Traditional medicine, particularly Japanese Kampo medicine (JKM), has been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach and has undergone examination in clinical trials related to HF. However, the deficiency of robust scientific evidence underscores the necessity for further exploration into the cardioprotective mechanisms of JKM. This study systematically examines the cardioprotective effects of Shakuyaku-kanzo-to (SKT), a specific JKM with limited application in cardiac care. Utilizing neonatal rat ventricular myocytes, we assessed the direct effects of SKT on myocardial hypertrophy. Methodologies included immunohistochemistry for cell size and a plate reader for quantifying cell survival, intracellular calcium levels ([Ca2+]i), and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. In addition, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was employed for gene expression analysis. The findings reveal that SKT significantly mitigates angiotensin Ⅱ (AngⅡ)-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and cell death, while also reducing elevated [Ca2+]i and ROS production associated with this condition. Furthermore, co-administration of nifedipine, an L-type Ca2+ channel (L-Ca2+) blocker, demonstrated that SKT antagonizes L-Ca2+ actions. These results indicate that SKT offers protection against AngⅡ-induced cardiomyocyte hypertrophy by inhibiting L-Ca2+-mediated pathways. Consequently, this research highlights the potential of SKT as a promising therapeutic agent for cardiac applications, paving the way for new preventive and treatment strategies for HF.

Synergistic effect of paeoniflorin combined with luteolin in alleviating Lipopolysaccharides-induced acute lung injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Acute lung injury (ALI) is an acute multifactorial infectious disease caused by trauma, pneumonia, shock and sepsis. Paeoniae Radix Rubra (Paeonia lactiflora Pall. or Paeonia veitchii Lynch, Chishao in Chinese, CS) and Salviae Miltiorrhizae Radix et Rhizoma (Salvia miltiorrhiza Bge., Lamiaceae, Danshen in Chinese, DS) are common traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). CS-DS herb pair has been widely used to promote blood circulation and eliminate blood stasis in Chinese clinical practice, appearing in a variety of prescriptions. However, it is still unclear for the effect and active ingredients of the herb pair on ALI.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The study investigated the effect and active ingredients of CS-DS herb pair and demonstrated the synergistic effect and mechanisms of the active ingredients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Lipopolysaccharides (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophage cells and BALB/c mice were used to establish an ALI model to investigate the effect of CS-DS herb pair on ALI. Network pharmacology and molecular docking were used to analyze the active ingredients and potential mechanisms of the herb pair. The synergistic effects and mechanisms of active ingredients on ALI were validated by in vitro and in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

CS-DS herb pair had a synergistic effect on LPS-induced ALI. Based on the network pharmacology, the compounds paeoniflorin and luteolin were screened. Both paeoniflorin and luteolin had good affinity for NF-κB and MAPK by molecular docking. LPS stimulation of RAW264.7 cells resulted in a significant increase in ROS, NO, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β, while the paeoniflorin combined with luteolin significantly reduced their expressions. In the LPS-induced ALI model, the combination also reduced the expression of inflammatory factors and oxidative stress levels. Furthermore, LPS activated the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways, whereas the combination decreased the expression of proteins in both pathways.

CONCLUSION

CS-DS herb pair alleviated LPS-induced ALI with the active ingredients paeoniflorin and luteolin, which suppressed inflammation and oxidative stress via regulation of NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways.

Quinacrine, a PLA2 inhibitor, alleviates LPS-induced acute kidney injury in rats: Involvement of TLR4/NF-κB/TNF α-mediated signaling

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI) is a major factor in sepsis-related mortality and may occur due to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), an endotoxin produced by gram-negative bacteria that triggers a systemic acute inflammatory response. Quinacrine's (QC) renoprotective properties in sepsis and the underlying mechanism, however, are still not fully understood. This study was done to investigate the anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, and anti-apoptotic effects of QC, a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) inhibitor, against LPS-induced AKI. Rats were randomly divided into five groups: control group, QC30 group, LPS group, LPS+QC 10 group, and LPS+QC 30 group. The rats were administered intraperitoneally QC (10 and 30 mg/kg) for 3 days (once a day) prior to injection of LPS (3 mg/kg). Six hours after the LPS injection, the histopathological changes, oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis in the collected kidney tissues were detected by hematoxylin and eosin staining, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), real-time PCR (RT-PCR), and immunohistochemistry staining, respectively. QC pretreatment could successfully attenuate LPS-induced AKI, as evidenced by a decrease in tissue histopathological injury. Meanwhile, QC alleviated LPS-induced kidney oxidative stress; it reduced MDA levels and increased levels of SOD, CAT, GPX, and GSH. LPS-induced elevations in kidney TLR4, NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, PLA2, caspase 3, and Bax contents were significantly attenuated in QC-treated groups. Our findings revealed a significant effect of QC: protecting against LPS-induced AKI through inhibition of PLA2 and decreasing inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. To treat LPS-induced AKI, QC may be an effective substance with an excellent protection profile.

Recent Advances in Biologically Active Ingredients from Natural Drugs for Sepsis Treatment

Sepsis refers to the dysregulated host response to infection; its incidence and mortality rates are high. It is a worldwide medical problem but there is no specific drug for it. In recent years, clinical and experimental studies have found that many monomer components of traditional Chinese medicine have certain effects on the treatment of sepsis. This paper reviews the advances in research on the active ingredients of traditional Chinese medicine involved in the treatment of sepsis in recent years according to their chemical structure; it could provide ideas and references for further research and development in Chinese materia medica for the treatment of sepsis.

Pharmacokinetic analysis for simultaneous quantification of Saikosaponin A- paeoniflorin in normal and poststroke depression rats: A comparative study

Bupleurum and Paeonia are common compatibilities for the treatment of depression, most of which are used in classical prescriptions. The main active ingredients saikosaponin A (SSA) and paeoniflorin (PF) have significant therapeutic effects on poststroke depression (PSD). However, the pharmacokinetic (PK) behavior based on the combination of the two components has not been reported in rats. The aim of this study was to compare the pharmacokinetic characteristics of combined administration of SSA and PF in normal and PSD rats. Plasma samples were collected after SSA and PF were injected into the rat tail vein, and plasma pretreatments were analyzed by HPLC. Based on the concentration levels of SSA and PF in plasma, Drug and Statistics 3.2.6 (DAS 3.2.6) software was used to establish the blood drug concentration model. PK data showed that compared with the normal rats, the values of related parameters t_1/2α, AUC_(0-t), AUC_(0-∞) were decreased in diseased rats, while the values of CL₁ was increased. These findings suggest that PSD can significantly affect the PK parameters of SSA-PF. This study established a PK model to explore the time-effect relationship, in order to provide experimental and theoretical support for clinical application.

Mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy as a new therapeutic approach for acute inflammation

Acute inflammatory diseases such as acute colitis, kidney injury, liver failure, lung injury, myocardial infarction, pancreatitis, septic shock, and spinal cord injury are significant causes of death worldwide. Despite advances in the understanding of its pathophysiology, there are many restrictions in the treatment of these diseases, and new therapeutic approaches are required. Mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy due to immunomodulatory and regenerative properties is a promising candidate for acute inflammatory disease management. Based on preclinical results, mesenchymal stem cells and their-derived secretome improved immunological and clinical parameters. Furthermore, many clinical trials of acute kidney, liver, lung, myocardial, and spinal cord injury have yielded promising results. In this review, we try to provide a comprehensive view of mesenchymal stem cell-based therapy in acute inflammatory diseases as a new treatment approach.

Paeoniflorin drives the immunomodulatory effects of mesenchymal stem cells by regulating Th1/Th2 cytokines in oral lichen planus

Lichen planus (LP) is a chronic inflammatory disease. Oral lichen planus (OLP) mainly appears as oral mucosal reticular or ulcerative lesions with an unknown etiology. We aimed to explore the immunomodulatory effect of paeoniflorin (PF) in mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and the potential involvement of Th1/Th2 cytokines in OLP. The effects of paeoniflorin on the proliferation and migration of MSCs were detected by Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK8) and Transwell assays. MSCs were subjected to osteogenic, adipogenic and neurogenic induction followed by Alizarin red, oil red O, real-time PCR and immunofluorescence assays. We found that paeoniflorin promoted the proliferation, migration and multilineage differentiation of MSCs from OLP lesions (OLP-MSCs) in vitro. Paeoniflorin pretreatment increased the inhibitory effect of OLP-MSCs on peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Furthermore, paeoniflorin-pretreated OLP-MSCs simultaneously decreased Th1 cytokine levels and increased Th2 cytokine levels in T lymphocyte cocultures. Finally, paeoniflorin-pretreated OLP-MSCs also promoted the Th1/Th2 balance both in vitro and in the serum of mice that received skin allografts. In conclusion, paeoniflorin enhanced MSC immunomodulation and changed the inflammatory microenvironment via T lymphocytes, suggesting that the improvement of OLP-MSCs is a promising therapeutic approach for OLP.

Pharmacologic therapies of ARDS: From natural herb to nanomedicine

Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a common critical illness in respiratory care units with a huge public health burden. Despite tremendous advances in the prevention and treatment of ARDS, it remains the main cause of intensive care unit (ICU) management, and the mortality rate of ARDS remains unacceptably high. The poor performance of ARDS is closely related to its heterogeneous clinical syndrome caused by complicated pathophysiology. Based on the different pathophysiology phases, drugs, protective mechanical ventilation, conservative fluid therapy, and other treatment have been developed to serve as the ARDS therapeutic methods. In recent years, there has been a rapid development in nanomedicine, in which nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles have been extensively studied in the treatment of ARDS. This study provides an overview of pharmacologic therapies for ARDS, including conventional drugs, natural medicine therapy, and nanomedicine. Particularly, we discuss the unique mechanism and strength of nanomedicine which may provide great promises in treating ARDS in the future.

Natural therapeutics and nutraceuticals for lung diseases: Traditional significance, phytochemistry, and pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Lung diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), infections like influenza, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), asthma and pneumonia lung cancer (LC) are common causes of sickness and death worldwide due to their remoteness, cold and harsh climatic conditions, and inaccessible health care facilities.

PURPOSE

Many drugs have already been proposed for the treatment of lung diseases. Few of them are in clinical trials and have the potential to cure infectious diseases. Plant extracts or herbal products have been extensively used as Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Indian Ayurveda. Moreover, it has been involved in the inhibition of certain genes/protiens effects to promote regulation of signaling pathways. Natural remedies have been scientifically proven with remarkable bioactivities and are considered a cheap and safe source for lung disease.

METHODS

This comprehensive review highlighted the literature about traditional plants and their metabolites with their applications for the treatment of lung diseases through experimental models in humans. Natural drugs information and mode of mechanism have been studied through the literature retrieved by Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, SciFinder, Scopus and Medline PubMed resources against lung diseases.

RESULTS

In vitro, in vivo and computational studies have been explained for natural metabolites derived from plants (like flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids) against different types of lung diseases. Probiotics have also been biologically active therapeutics against cancer, anti-inflammation, antiplatelet, antiviral, and antioxidants associated with lung diseases.

CONCLUSION

The results of the mentioned natural metabolites repurposed for different lung diseases especially for SARS-CoV-2 should be evaluated more by advance computational applications, experimental models in the biological system, also need to be validated by clinical trials so that we may be able to retrieve potential drugs for most challenging lung diseases especially SARS-CoV-2.

Effect of Dietary Paeoniae Radix Alba Extract on the Growth Performance, Nutrient Digestibility and Metabolism, Serum Biochemistry, and Small Intestine Histomorphology of Raccoon Dog During the Growing Period

Paeoniae radix alba extract (PRA extract) has the functions of regulating immunity, resisting inflammation, and has antioxidant properties. However, current recommendations of dietary PRA extract levels for raccoon dogs were inadequate. The purpose of this experimental study was to gain information allowing for better estimating the effects of PRA extract on raccoon dogs, and their PRA requirements. Fifty healthy male raccoon dogs of (120 ± 5) days old were randomly divided into 5 groups (group PRA0, PRA1, PRA2, PRA4, PRA8) with 10 animals in each group and 1 in each replicate. Five kinds of experimental diets were prepared with five levels of Paeoniae radix alba extract (0, 1, 2, 4, 8 g/kg) in the basic diet. The prefeeding period was 7 days and the experimental period was 40 days. The results showed that the average daily feed intake in group PRA1 and PRA2 was significantly higher than that in other groups (P < 0.01). The dry matter excretion in group PRA8 was significantly higher than that in other groups (P < 0.01), while the dry matter digestibility and protein digestibility in group PRA8 were significantly lower than those in other groups (P < 0.01). Nitrogen retention in group PRA1 and PRA2 was significantly higher than that in group PRA8 (P < 0.05). With the increase of the content of Paeoniae radix alba extract in diet, the activity of alkaline phosphatase in group PRA2 was significantly higher than that in group PRA0 (P < 0.05); The activity of serum SOD in group PRA4 was significantly higher than that in other groups (P < 0.01). The content of serum IgA in group PRA2 was significantly higher than that in other groups (P < 0.05). The content of TNF-α in intestinal mucosa in group PRA1 and group PRA2 was significantly lower than that in group PRA0 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, we found that dietary Paeoniae radix alba extract intake significantly improved the feed intake and nitrogen deposition of Ussuri raccoon dog, increased the content of serum IgA and reduced the content of TNF-α in the small intestinal mucosa. We suggest that an estimated dietary Paeoniae radix alba extract level of 1 to 2 g/kg could be used as a guide to achieve the optimal performance of raccoon dogs.

Paeoniflorin Ameliorates Skeletal Muscle Atrophy in Chronic Kidney Disease via AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α-Mediated Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Skeletal muscle atrophy is a common and serious complication of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction are involved in the pathogenesis of muscle atrophy. The aim of this study was to explore the effects and mechanisms of paeoniflorin on CKD skeletal muscle atrophy. We demonstrated that paeoniflorin significantly improved renal function, calcium/phosphorus disorders, nutrition index and skeletal muscle atrophy in the 5/6 nephrectomized model rats. Paeoniflorin ameliorated the expression of proteins associated with muscle atrophy and muscle differentiation, including muscle atrophy F-box (MAFbx/atrogin-1), muscle RING finger 1 (MuRF1), MyoD and myogenin (MyoG). In addition, paeoniflorin modulated redox homeostasis by increasing antioxidant activity and suppressing excessive accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Paeoniflorin alleviated mitochondrial dysfunction by increasing the activities of electron transport chain complexes and mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, paeoniflorin also regulates mitochondrial dynamics. Importantly, paeoniflorin upregulated the expression of silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), and phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). Similar results were observed in C2C12 myoblasts treated with TNF-α and paeoniflorin. Notably, these beneficial effects of paeoniflorin on muscle atrophy were abolished by inhibiting AMPK and SIRT1 and knocking down PGC-1α. Taken together, this study showed for the first time that paeoniflorin has great therapeutic potential for CKD skeletal muscle atrophy through AMPK/SIRT1/PGC-1α-mediated oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction.

Detecting Critical Functional Ingredients Group and Mechanism of Xuebijing Injection in Treating Sepsis

Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory reaction caused by various infectious or noninfectious factors, which can lead to shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and death. It is one of the common complications and a main cause of death in critically ill patients. At present, the treatments of sepsis are mainly focused on the controlling of inflammatory response and reduction of various organ function damage, including anti-infection, hormones, mechanical ventilation, nutritional support, and traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among them, Xuebijing injection (XBJI) is an important derivative of TCM, which is widely used in clinical research. However, the molecular mechanism of XBJI on sepsis is still not clear. The mechanism of treatment of "bacteria, poison and inflammation" and the effects of multi-ingredient, multi-target, and multi-pathway have still not been clarified. For solving this issue, we designed a new systems pharmacology strategy which combines target genes of XBJI and the pathogenetic genes of sepsis to construct functional response space (FRS). The key response proteins in the FRS were determined by using a novel node importance calculation method and were condensed by a dynamic programming strategy to conduct the critical functional ingredients group (CFIG). The results showed that enriched pathways of key response proteins selected from FRS could cover 95.83% of the enriched pathways of reference targets, which were defined as the intersections of ingredient targets and pathogenetic genes. The targets of the optimized CFIG with 60 ingredients could be enriched into 182 pathways which covered 81.58% of 152 pathways of 1,606 pathogenetic genes. The prediction of CFIG targets showed that the CFIG of XBJI could affect sepsis synergistically through genes such as TAK1, TNF-α, IL-1β, and MEK1 in the pathways of MAPK, NF-κB, PI3K-AKT, Toll-like receptor, and tumor necrosis factor signaling. Finally, the effects of apigenin, baicalein, and luteolin were evaluated by in vitro experiments and were proved to be effective in reducing the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 cells, significantly. These results indicate that the novel integrative model can promote reliability and accuracy on depicting the CFIGs in XBJI and figure out a methodological coordinate for simplicity, mechanism analysis, and secondary development of formulas in TCM.

Paeoniflorin improves myocardial injury via p38 MAPK/NF-KB p65 inhibition in lipopolysaccharide-induced mouse

Background

Paeoniflorin (Pae) is an active compound with a variety of pharmacological effects. This aim was to investigate how Pae protects against myocardial injury and to explore its potential mechanism.

Methods

We established a BALB/c mouse model that was intraperitoneal injection (i.p.) of RvE1 (25 µg/kg) or Pae (20 mg/kg) for 3 days, and then treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg, i.p.). The mice were randomly divided into the sham group, the LPS group, the LPS + RvE1 group, the LPS + Pae group (n=8). Cardiac dysfunction was detected by HE staining and ELISA assay. The oxidative stress, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) and apoptosis were assessed. Furthermore, western blotting (WB) assay were employed to analyze the protective mechanisms.

Results

Pae improved LPS-induced cardiac function and impeded apoptosis. Pae significantly reduced the release of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and IL-1β. Furthermore, Pae decreased malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), and reactive oxygen species (ROS), and increased superoxide dismutase (SOD). In addition, Pae attenuated the mPTP opening and MMP depolarization. Notably, Pae treatment inhibited the activation of p38 MAPK and NF-κB p65.

Conclusions

It was confirmed that Pae alleviated LPS-induced myocardial injury. Pae might be as a new drug candidate for myocardial ischaemic complications.

Effect of paeoniflorin on acute lung injury induced by influenza A virus in mice. Evidences of its mechanism of action

BACKGROUND

Influenza often leads to acute lung injury (ALI). Few therapeutics options such as vaccines and other antiviral drugs are available. Paeoniflorin is a monoterpene glucoside isolated from the roots of Paeonia lactiflora Pall. that has showed good anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrotic effects. However, it is not known whether paeoniflorin has an effect on influenza virus-induced ALI.

PURPOSE

To investigative the protective effect and potential mechanism of paeoniflorin on ALI induced by influenza A virus (IAV).

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The anti-influenza activity of paeoniflorin in vitro was investigated. Influenza virus A/FM/1/47 was intranasally infected in mice to induce ALI, and paeoniflorin (50 and 100 mg/kg) was given orally to mice during 5 days, beginning 2 h after infection. On day 6 post-infection, body and lung weights, histology and survival were observed, and the lungs were examined for viral load, cytokine and cellular pathway protein expression.

RESULTS

Results showed that paeoniflorin (50 and 100 mg/kg) reduced IAV-induced ALI. It reduces pulmonary oedema and improves histopathological changes in the lung, and also diminishes the accumulation of inflammatory cells in the lung. It was shown that paeoniflorin (50 and 100 mg/kg) alleviated IAV-induced ALI, as evidenced by improved survival in infected mice (40% and 50%, respectively), reduced viral titer in lung tissue, improved histological changes, and reduced lung inflammation. Paeoniflorin also improves pulmonary fibrosis by reducing the levels of pulmonary fibrotic markers (collagen type IV, alpha-smooth muscle actin, hyaluronic acid, laminin, and procollagen type III) and downregulating the expression levels of type I collagen (Col I) and type III collagen (Col III) in the lung tissues. Additionally, paeoniflorin inhibits the expression of αvβ3, TGF-β1, Smad2, NF-κB, and p38MAPK in the lung tissues.

CONCLUSION

The results showed that paeoniflorin (50 and 100 mg/kg) protected against IAV-induced ALI, and the underlying mechanism may be related to the reduction of pro-inflammatory cytokine production and lung collagen deposition through down-regulation of activation of αvβ3/TGF-β1 pathway in lung tissue.

Fisetin Ameliorates the Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endometritis

Purpose

Fisetin is a natural flavone of polyphenol, which widely exists in many fruits and vegetables and has many pharmacological activities. However, the mechanism involved remains largely unknown. Here, we investigate the mechanisms of fisetin on the inflammatory response and oxidative stress in LPS-induced endometritis model and bovine endometrial epithelial cell line (BEND).

Methods

The function of fisetin was analyzed by network pharmacology. Effects of increasing doses of fisetin on inflammation and oxidative stress are studied in BALB/c mice with LPS-induced endometritis. The underlying mechanisms of antioxidant activity of fisetin were further explored in LPS-stimulated BEND cells.

Results

The results showed that fisetin significantly alleviated LPS-induced inflammatory injury and oxidative stress both in vivo and in vitro. Further studies found that fisetin greatly inhibited the LPS stimulated TLR4 expression and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), thus reducing the pro-inflammatory mediators secretion. Silencing TLR4 reduced LPS-induced inflammatory responses. Moreover, we observed that fisetin evidently decreased ROS production but activated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in LPS-stimulated BEND cells. To further explore the role of Nrf2 in fisetin-induced HO-1 protein expression, the specific siRNA was used to silence Nrf2 expression. Silencing Nrf2 abrogated the inhibitory effects of fisetin on LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β secretion, NADPH oxidase-4 (Nox4) and ROS production.

Conclusion

In conclusion, fisetin effectively protected against LPS-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses which may be closely correlated to inhibition of TLR4-mediated ROS/NF-κB and activation of the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Paeoniflorin and Hydroxysafflor Yellow A in Xuebijing Injection Attenuate Sepsis-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction and Inhibit Proinflammatory Cytokine Production

Sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction is a major contributor to the poor outcomes of septic shock. As an add-on with conventional sepsis management for over 15 years, the effect of Xuebijing injection (XBJ) on the sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction was not well understood. The material basis of Xuebijing injection (XBJ) in managing infections and infection-related complications remains to be defined. A murine cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) model and cardiomyocytes in vitro culture were adopted to study the influence of XBJ on infection-induced cardiac dysfunction. XBJ significantly improved the survival of septic-mice and rescued cardiac dysfunction in vivo. RNA-seq revealed XBJ attenuated the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and related signalings in the heart which was further confirmed on the mRNA and protein levels. Xuebijing also protected cardiomyocytes from LPS-induced mitochondrial calcium ion overload and reduced the LPS-induced ROS production in cardiomyocytes. The therapeutic effect of XBJ was mediated by the combination of paeoniflorin and hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) (C0127-2). C0127-2 improved the survival of septic mice, protected their cardiac function and cardiomyocytes while balancing gene expression in cytokine-storm-related signalings, such as TNF-α and NF-κB. In summary, Paeoniflorin and HSYA are key active compounds in XBJ for managing sepsis, protecting cardiac function, and controlling inflammation in the cardiac tissue partially by limiting the production of IL-6, IL-1β, and CXCL2.

Total glucosides of paeony: A review of its phytochemistry, role in autoimmune diseases, and mechanisms of action

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Paeoniae Radix Alba (PRA, called baishao in China), the root of Paeonia lactiflora Pall., has shown a rich medicinal value for more than 2000 years. PRA is used in local medicine and traditional medicine for autoimmune diseases associated with inflammation. At present, total glucosides of paeony (TGP), the main active ingredient of PRA, has been developed into a preparation for the treatment of autoimmune diseases, as TGP exhibits the effect of regulating immunity, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic effects.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

TGP was developed and applied to inflammation-related autoimmune diseases in modern clinical practice. Based on its application in traditional prescriptions, this article reviews PRA's botany and phytochemistry (including its extraction process and quality control), and discusses the clinical application and pharmacological research of TGP as an anti-inflammatory drug from the perspective of ethnopharmacology. Additionally, we review modern pharmacological and molecular-target research on TGP and discuss the mechanisms of TGP in treating autoimmune diseases. Through a systematic literature review, we also highlight the clinical efficacy of TGP in the treatment of immune diseases, and provide a reference for the continued scientific development and quality control of TGP so that its wider application and clinical value can be fully realized.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Literature search was conducted through the Web of Science, Baidu Scholar, ScienceDirect, PubMed, CNKI, and WanFang DATA using the keywords "Total glucosides of paeony", "Paeonia lactiflora Pall. ", "Paeonia veitchii Lynch", "Paeoniae Radix Alba or white peony", "Paeoniae Radix Rubra or red peony", "Paeoniflorin", "Albiflorin", "Autoimmune diseases", and their combinations. In addition, information was collected from relevant textbooks, reviews, and documents.

RESULTS

Approximately 15 compounds have been identified in TGP, of which paeoniflorin and albiflorin are the most common constituents. In recent years, studies have found that TGP and its main chemical components are effective in the treatment of autoimmune diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, oral lichen planus, and Sjogren's syndrome. TGP has a variety of pharmacological effects related to PRA traditional effects, including anti-organ-damage, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antioxidant, cardiovascular, and nervous-system protection. Previously published reports on TGP treatment of autoimmune diseases have shown that TGP regulates intracellular pathways, such as the nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/protein kinase B (PI3K/Akt) signaling pathways. However, there is no standardized preparation method for TGP, and there is insufficient quality control of formulations. Many related pharmacological studies have not tested TGP components, and the validity of such pharmacological results requires further verification.

CONCLUSIONS

Modern pharmacological research on TGP is based on the traditional usage of PRA, and its folk medicinal value in the treatment of autoimmune diseases has now been verified. In particular, TGP has been developed into a formulation used clinically for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The combination of TGP capsules and chemicals to treat autoimmune diseases has the effect of increasing efficacy and reducing toxicity. Based on further research on its preparation, quality control, and mechanisms of action, TGP is expected to eventually play a greater role in the treatment of autoimmune diseases.

Sevoflurane Preconditioning Prevents Septic Myocardial Dysfunction in Lipopolysaccharide-Challenged Mice

Myocardial dysfunction accompanied by severe sepsis could significantly increase the mortality rate of septic patients. This study investigated the effects and the potential mechanisms of sevoflurane preconditioning on septic myocardial dysfunction, which was induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS; from Escherichia coli O55:B5; 18 mg/kg) in mice. Results indicated that 1 hour after the administration, LPS induced a significant increase in cell-surface Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), cytoplasmic IKKα protein expression, and nuclear translocation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) protein (P < 0.05), which was attenuated by preconditioning with sevoflurane. Two hours after the administration, inhalation of sevoflurane significantly reduced the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-10 (P < 0.05). Twelve hours after administration, LPS caused pathological damage to the heart and elevated the serum levels of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase-MB (P < 0.05). Echocardiography indicated that sevoflurane preconditioning significantly improved systolic and diastolic function. The inhalation of sevoflurane inhibited increases in myeloperoxidase (MPO), macrophage inflammatory protein-2 (MIP-2), TNF-α, and IL-1β levels (P < 0.05) induced by endotoxemia, whereas IL-6 release was facilitated. Sevoflurane attenuated the myocardial levels of nitric oxide (P < 0.05) without an apparent influence on malondialdehyde (MDA) or superoxide dismutase (P > 0.05). In conclusion, our study indicates that exposure to 2% sevoflurane before LPS challenge is protective against myocardial dysfunction. Sevoflurane preconditioning may attenuate neutrophil infiltration and the release of inflammatory mediators during endotoxemia.

A review on the pharmacokinetics of paeoniflorin and its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects

Increasing pharmacological evidence supports that paeoniflorin, a water-soluble monoterpene glycoside isolated from Paeonia lactiflora Pall. (Shaoyao in Chinese), has a wide range of medicinal properties including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antithrombotic, anticonvulsive, analgesic, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antidepressant-like, antitumoral, and immune-regulatory activities; as well as enhancing cognition and attenuating learning impairment. In addition to pharmacodynamic studies, information on pharmacokinetics is also significant for the further development and utilization of paeoniflorin. The present review focuses on the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of paeoniflorin, especially main pharmacological activities of paeoniflorin on inflammation and immune function. According to the findings obtained both in vitro and in vivo, a broad application prospect has been opened for paeoniflorin. However, further studies are needed to clarity the direct molecular mechanisms and key targets underlying the beneficial effects of paeoniflorin on inflammation and immunity.

Chinese Herbal Formula, Huayu Tongbi Fang, Attenuates Inflammatory Proliferation of Rat Synoviocytes Induced by IL-1β by Regulating Proliferation and Differentiation of T Lymphocytes

The inflammatory proliferation of fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) and functional imbalances in T lymphocytes play critical roles in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The clinical efficacy of Huayu Tongbi Fang (HYTB, a traditional herbal formula) in RA treatment has been validated. In this study, we aimed to explore the regulatory mechanisms of HYTB on the proliferation and differentiation of T lymphocytes, and the inhibitory effect of HYTB on inflammatory proliferation of FLSs. The RCS-364 (Rat FLSs) cells were cocultured with rat splenic lymphocytes that were induced by interleukin-1β in Transwell chambers. After freeze-dried HYTB powder treatment, the percentage of T-cell subset and apoptosis rates of FLSs were measured using flow cytometry. Furthermore, protein expression of key molecules of NF-κB and JAK/STAT signaling pathways was quantified using Western blot. The granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) was measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The results showed that HYTB could inhibit the inflammatory proliferation of FLSs through inducing cell apoptosis. Additionally, HYTB treatment could intervene in the proliferation and differentiation of T lymphocytes and regulate protein expression of key molecules in NF-κB and JAK/STAT cell signaling pathways. Moreover, it could inhibit FLS activation by suppressing GM-CSF production by T cells and FLSs. Therefore, the HYTB formula should be used as a traditional medicine against RA in modern complementary and alternative therapies.

Network pharmacology based research into the effect and mechanism of Xijiao Dihuang decoction against sepsis

Sepsis is a critical illness that contributes a high mortality, while Xijiao Dihuang decoction (XJDHT) has been used in treatment against sepsis for many years by clinical doctors. Clinical studies confirmed a good efficacy of XJDHT against sepsis. The aim of this study is to observe the efficacy of XJDHT in sepsis model rats and macrophages activated by LPS, and to verify the underlying mechanisms. The key components of XJDHT and its targets against sepsis were analyzed and selected by network pharmacology. The potential mechanisms that XJDHT regulates the progress of sepsis were verified in sepsis rats and NR8383 cell lines. XJDHT at a dose of 25 mg/kg was administrated to rats which endured cecal ligation and perforation (CLP). After MTT assay, XJDHT at a dose of 4 mg/mL was selected to treat NR8383 cell lines activated by LPS. In vivo experiment, the survival of the rats was assessed. The content of cytokine in serum were assessed by Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). Contents of cytokine and key molecules in relative signaling pathway were assessed by immunohistochemical method. The pathway protein expressions were detected by Western blotting. In vitro experiment, immunofluorescence was used to assess the content of cytokine and signaling pathway. A total of 42 targets of XJDHT against sepsis were identified by network pharmacology. After eliminating overlapping compounds and proteins, there were 8 compounds in XJDHT that associating with the 42 sepsis-related targets. NF-κB and HIF-1α signaling pathway were recognized to play important role for XJDHT against sepsis. XJDHT improved survival rate in the XJDHT group compared with the model group. The contents of IL-6 increased in the model group compared with the control group with ELISA and immunohistochemistry, while XJDHT reduced the content of IL-6. The expressions of p65 and HIF-1α reduced significantly in the XJDHT group compared with the model group. In vitro study, the content of IL-6 elevated significantly after LPS stimulation, while XJDHT reduced this increase. Furthermore, expressions of protein of p65 and HIF-1α decreased significantly compared with the LPS group. To conclude, our study demonstrated that XJDHT at a dose of 25 g/kg is capable of improving the survival of sepsis via regulating the NF-κB and HIF-1α signaling pathway.

Korean Traditional Medicine (Jakyakgamcho-tang) Ameliorates Colitis by Regulating Gut Microbiota

The objective of this study was to examine the anti-colitis activity of Jakyakgamcho-tang (JGT) in dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis and explore changes of the gut microbial community using 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and metabolomics approaches. It was found that treatment with JGT or 5-aminosalicylic acid (5-ASA) alleviated the severity of colitis symptoms by suppressing inflammatory cytokine levels of IL-6, IL-12, and IFN-γ. The non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis of gut microbiome revealed that JGT groups were clearly separated from the DSS group, suggesting that JGT administration altered gut microbiota. The operational taxonomic units (OTUs) that were decreased by DSS but increased by JGT include Akkermansia and Allobaculum. On the other hand, OTUs that were increased by DSS but decreased by 5-ASA or JGT treatments include Bacteroidales S24-7, Ruminococcaceae, and Rikenellaceae, and the genera Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Oscillospira, and Coprobacillus. After JGT administration, the metabolites, including most amino acids and lactic acid that were altered by colitis induction, became similar to those of the control group. This study demonstrates that JGT might have potential to effectively treat colitis by restoring dysbiosis of gut microbiota and host metabolites.

A review for the anti-inflammatory effects of paeoniflorin in inflammatory disorders

Inflammatory disorders result from abnormal immune response and their incidence has increased recently. Thus, there is an urgent need to discover new treatments for inflammatory disorders. In recent years, the natural products contained in Chinese herbs have attracted much attention worldwide owing to their anti-inflammatory effects. Paeoniflorin (PF) is a bioactive compound purified from the Chinese herb Paeonia lactiflora and reports have recently emerged suggesting the great potential of P. lactiflora as an agent to counter inflammatory disorders. The anti-inflammatory effects of PF have been revealed by in vitro studies and in vivo animal experiments of different inflammatory disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, and asthma. This review systematically describes the recent progress of studies on the mechanism of PF and its therapeutic potential in inflammatory disorders.

Histopathological and biochemical evaluation of the effect of Paeoniflorin on the periodontium during and after periodontitis formation in rats

OBJECTIVES

Appraise the effect of systemic Paeoniflorin (Pae) application on the periodontium during and after induction of experimental periodontitis in the presence of ligature and after its removal.

DESIGN

Seventy male Wistar rats were separated into seven equal groups. The first group was reserved as healthy control group (Group 1: no periodontitis, no medication) and experimental periodontitis was induced with ligature in the remaining rats. In experimental periodontitis groups, Pae or saline was administered systemically in three differet periods; during the experimental periodontitis induction (period 1), after experimental periodontitis induction which ligature removed (period 2) or ligature kept in position (period 3). Only, one of the groups acted as the control periodontitis group and received no treatment. Experimental periodontitis groups were as follows; Group 2: medication in period 1, Group 3: periodontitis and no medication, Group 4: medication in period 2, Group 5: saline application in period 2, Group 6: medication in period 3, Group 7: saline application in period 3. Matrix metalloproteinases-9 (MMP-9) levels and interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels were detected biochemically and histomorphometric analyses were performed. These analyses included measurements of the area of alveolar bone, the level of alveolar bone, and attachment loss.

RESULTS

Area of alveolar bone and IL-10 levels were higher in the Pae-administered groups; level of alveolar bone, attachment loss, and MMP-9 levels were correspondingly lower (P < 0.05). The beneficial effects at histomorphometrical and biochemical levels of Pae were the strongest in the rats that were administered Pae after the removal of ligature.

CONCLUSIONS

Systemically administered Pae had a positive effect on the healing of periodontal tissues. Pae can be used as a new therapeutic agent for periodontal diseases, but microbiology-based studies and more extensive biochemistry-based experimental and clinical studies are needed to address this possibility.

Neuroprotection by Paeoniflorin against Nuclear Factor Kappa B-Induced Neuroinflammation on Spinal Cord Injury

Background

Acute spinal cord injury (SCI) is one of the most common and devastating causes of sensory or motor dysfunction. Nuclear factor-kappa B(NF-κB)-mediated neuroinflammatory responses, in addition to nitric oxide (NO), are key regulatory pathways in SCI. Paeoniflorin (PF), a major active component extracted from Paeonia roots, has been suggested to exert neuroprotective effects in the central nervous system. However, whether PF could improve the motor function after SCI in vivo is still unclear.

Method

Immunohistochemical analysis, western blot, real-time quantitative PCR, immunofluorescence staining, and histopathological and behavioral evaluation were used to explore the effects of paeoniflorin after SCI for 14 days.

Results

In this study, PF treatment significantly inhibited NF-κB activation and downregulated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2(COX-2), and Nogo-A. Comparing behavioral and histological changes in SCI and PF treatment groups, we found that PF treatment improved motor function recovery, attenuated the histopathological damage, and increased neuronal survival in the SCI model. PF treatment also reduced expression levels of Bax and c-caspase-3 and increased the expression level of Bcl-2 and cell viabilities. Upregulation of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β after injury was also prevented by PF.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the neuroprotective effects of PF are related to the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway. And PF may be a therapeutic strategy in spinal cord injury.

Chaihu-Shugan-San Decoction Modulates Intestinal Microbe Dysbiosis and Alleviates Chronic Metabolic Inflammation in NAFLD Rats via the NLRP3 Inflammasome Pathway

We evaluate the effects of the Chaihu-Shugan-San decoction on intestinal microbe dysbiosis and chronic metabolic inflammation via the NLRP3 pathway in NAFLD rats that were fed a high-fat diet. Twenty-four SD rats (male, six weeks old, 200 ± 20 g) were randomly divided into three groups: normal control group (NC group), high-fat diet-fed group (HFD group), and Chaihu-Shugan-San decoction intervention group (CH group). The NC group rats were given standard feed, the HFD group rats were all fed a high-fat diet (83% standard feed + 10% lard oil + 5% sucrose + 1.5% cholesterol + 0.5% cholate), and the CH group rats were given a HFD plus Chaihu-Shugan-San at 9.6 g•kg-1•d-1. Body composition, serum and liver lipids, inflammatory markers, intestinal microbial population, and the NLRP3 pathway-associated protein were assessed. The results showed that Chaihu-Shugan-San decoction significantly reduced body weight and total fat mass and the levels of serum LPS, TG, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18, as well as liver TC, TG, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-18 (P < 0.05). The abundance of Enterobacteriaceae (0.375% versus 0.064%, P < 0.05), Staphylococcaceae families (0.049% versus 0.016%, P < 0.05) and Veillonella genus (0.096% versus 0.009%, P < 0.01) significantly decreased, whereas the abundance of Anaeroplasma genus (0.0005% versus 0.0178%, P < 0.01) significantly increased. The expression levels of NLRP3, ASC, and Caspase-1 were changed significantly (P < 0.05). In summary, the Chaihu-Shugan-San decoction modulated intestinal microbe dysbiosis, reduced fat accumulation, and alleviated inflammatory factor expression, which are all processes related to the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway in NAFLD rats.

Paeoniflorin inhibits IL‑1β‑induced expression of inflammatory mediators in human osteoarthritic chondrocyte

Interleukin (IL)-1β serves an important role in the promotion of the growth of osteoarthritis (OA) lesions. Paeoniflorin (PF) has been identified to exert anti‑inflammatory and anti‑arthritic effects. However, it is uncertain whether PF may affect the expression levels of inflammatory mediators in OA chondrocytes. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to determine the effects of PF on the expression levels of inflammatory mediators in IL‑1β‑stimulated human OA chondrocytes. The results of the present study determined that PF inhibited the production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2 induced by IL‑1β, and the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase‑2 in chondrocytes. Additionally, PF significantly inhibited the IL‑1β‑stimulated production of metalloproteinase‑3 (MMP‑3) and MMP‑13 in chondrocytes. PF inhibited the expression of nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB), p65 and NF‑κB inhibitor α degradation was induced by IL‑1β in chondrocytes. The results of the present study suggest that PF may inhibit IL‑1β‑induced expression of inflammatory mediators in human OA chondrocytes by suppressing the activation of the NF‑κB signaling pathway. Therefore, PF may be a potential agent in the future treatment of OA.

Paeoniflorin blocks the proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells induced by platelet‑derived growth factor‑BB through ROS mediated ERK1/2 and p38 signaling pathways

The proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contributes to the development of vascular remodeling. In the present study, the effect of paeoniflorin (PAE) on the platelet derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB)-induced proliferation of primary cultured rat VSMCs and its molecular mechanism was investigated. The toxicity was determined by the try pan blue exclusion test. Cell proliferation was determined using a CCK-8 assay, DNA synthesis was assessed by measuring the incorporation of BrdU. Cell cycle progression was determined using PI staining and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. The level of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation was assessed using dichlorodihydro fluorescein diacetate. mRNA expression was determined by reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Changes of p38, JNK, ERK1/2 signaling pathways were determined by western blot analysis. Cell migration was detected by scratch assay. PAE was demonstrated to significantly inhibit VSMC proliferation induced by PDGF-BB in a dose-and time-dependent manner without cell cytotoxicity. Thus, PAE blocked progression through the G0/G1 to Sphase of the cell cycle. Furthermore, inhibition of the cell cycle was associated with the inhibition of them RNA expression of cyclin D1, cyclin E, cyclin dependent kinase (CDK) 4 and CDK2 as well as with increased cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor 1A mRNA expression in PDGF-BB-stimulated VSMCs. Further studies showed that the beneficial effect of PAE on blocking VSMCs proliferation was related to the suppression of the ROS-mediated extra cellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1/2 and p38 signaling pathways, although PAE had no significant effect on the c-Jun N-terminal kinase signalling pathway. These results demonstrated that PAE suppressed PDGF-BB-induced VSMC proliferation through the ROS-mediated ERK1/2 and p38 signaling pathways, suggesting that it may be a feasible therapy for vascular remodelling diseases.

Paeoniflorin inhibits VSMCs proliferation and migration by arresting cell cycle and activating HO-1 through MAPKs and NF-κB pathway

The proliferation, migration and inflammation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) contributes to the pathogenesis and progression of atherosclerosis. Paeoniflorin (PF) as active compound in the Rhizoma Atractylodes macrocephala has been used for various diseases like cancer, splenic asthenia, anaphylaxis and anorexia. This study aimed to explore whether and how PF regulated the inflammation, proliferation and migration of VSMCs under ox-LDL stimulation. Here, we found that PF dose-dependently inhibited ox-LDL-induced VSMCs proliferation and migration, and decreased inflammatory cytokines and chemokine overexpression. Mechanistically, PF prevented p38, ERK1/2 and NF-κB phosphorylation, and arrested cell cycle in S phase. Meanwhile, PF regulated the HO-1 and PCNA expression. Furthermore, PF blocked the foam cell formation in macrophages induced by ox-LDL. These results indicate that PF antagonizes the ox-LDL-induced VSMCs proliferation, migration and inflammation through activation of HO-1, cell cycle arrest and then suppression of p38, ERK1/2/MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways.

Total glucosides of paeony ameliorates TNBS‑induced colitis by modulating differentiation of Th17/Treg cells and the secretion of cytokines

The imbalance between effector CD4+ T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory CD4+ T cells (Treg) cells and their associated cytokines, have been associated with the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Total glycosides of paeony (TGP) is an alternative immunomodulatory agent that is widely used for the treatment of autoimmune diseases. The present study aimed to evaluate the modulatory effect of TGP in a rat model of colitis induced by 2,4,6‑trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). TGP was administered intragastrically 24 h after the TNBS intrarectal instillation for 7 days. TGP treatment ameliorated the clinical status and reversed the histopathologic severity of acute TNBS colitis. Furthermore, TGP inhibited the levels of Th17‑associated cytokines interleukin (IL)‑17, IL‑6, tumor necrosis factor‑α, whereas the expression levels of Treg‑associated cytokines IL‑10, transforming growth factor‑β in the plasma, colon, spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (MLN). Additionally, TGP reduced the percentage of Th17 cells; however, the proportion of Treg cells in the spleen and MLN was increased. The present study also observed a suppression of Th17‑associated transcription factor, termed retinoid‑related orphan receptor‑γt (ROR‑γt). However, expression of the Treg‑associated transcription factor forkhead boxp3 was increased in the TGP treatment group. Therefore, the present findings suggest that TGP has a regulatory role in modulating the balance of Th17 and Treg cells to ameliorate the TNBS‑induced colitis and support the strategy of using TGP to treat IBD.

Crude terpene glycoside component from Radix paeoniae rubra protects against isoproterenol-induced myocardial ischemic injury via activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Radix paeoniae rubra, also known as chishao (CS), is a frequently used traditional Chinese medicine that can promote blood circulation to remove blood stasis. It has been widely used for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in China. Although terpene glycoside (TG), the major component in CS, has been shown to possess cardioprotective properties, the mechanism underlying CS-TG's preventive effect against myocardial ischemia injury is unknown. This study was conducted to explore the protective and curative effects of CS-TG against isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial ischemic injury in rats and investigate the underlying myocardial protective mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A rat model of ISO-induced myocardial ischemia was established to evaluate the protective effect of CS-TG in ameliorating heart injury. Myocardial ischemia was induced by administering ISO (40mg/kg/d) subcutaneously for 2 days. Serum was collected and analyzed for the levels of different cardiac biomarkers, and heart tissues were isolated and prepared for ATP analysis, glycogen content determination, histopathology assay, and ultrastructure observation. The regulatory effects of CS-TG on myocardial apoptosis in rats were studied by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) staining, and the levels of cleaved caspase-3, Bax, and Bcl-2 were detected by western blotting. Furthermore, in vitro experiments were conducted to examine whether the CS-TG's cardioprotective effects were linked to the inhibition of apoptosis via activation of the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/serine-threonine kinase AKT/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/AKT/mTOR) pathway.

RESULTS

CS-TG (300mg/kg/d) significantly decreased serum levels of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase in ISO-induced myocardial ischemic rats. Analysis of ATP and glycogen contents, myocardial ultrastructure, and pathological examination showed that CS-TG (300mg/kg/d) significantly improved energy metabolism and alleviated myocardial injury in vivo. In addition, the expression of p-AKT and p-mTOR in rats subjected to CS-TG significantly elevated, while the levels of caspase-3 and Bax/Bcl-2 dramatically reduced. Moreover, treatment with LY294002, a PI3K inhibitor, abrogated CS-TG (200μg/mL) induced down-regulation of cleaved caspase-3, Bax/Bcl-2 in the serum.

CONCLUSIONS

CS-TG protects the heart from ISO-induced myocardial ischemia, potentially by improving cardiac energy metabolism and inhibiting cardiomyocyte apoptosis via activation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. Thus, CS -TG might be a potential therapeutic candidate for the prevention and treatment of myocardial ischemia.

Downregulation of PI3K-γ in a mouse model of sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction

A key component during sepsis is the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway, of which the PI3K-γ isoform is a major regulator in many inflammatory responses. However, the role of PI3K-γ in the development of sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction (SIMD) is unknown. In this study, we established a model of SIMD induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), subsequently used the selective inhibitor LY294002 and AS605240 to block the effect of PI3K and PI3K-γ, respectively. Cardiac function was evaluated by echocardiography, hearts were obtained for histological and protein expression examinations. ELISA was used to measure the serum levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), cardiac troponin I (cTnI) and heart-type fatty acid binding protein (H-FABP). LPS-treated mice showed an increase to cardiac inflammation, myocardial damage and production of TNF-α, IL-6, NF-κB, cTnI and H-FABP. Administration of AS605240 to LPS-treated mice reduced some patho-physiological characteristics of SIMD and reduced TNF-α, IL-6, cTnI and H-FABP production. However, administration of LY294002 did not improve those same conditions. The results showed that PI3K-γ is likely a crucial element in SIMD by regulating the PI3K/Akt pathway, and become a new marker of myocardial injury. Inhibition of PI3K-γ might be a potential therapeutic target in SIMD.

IFN-τ Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation by Suppressing NF-κB and MAPKs Pathway Activation in Mice

IFN-τ, which is a type I interferon with low cytotoxicity, is defined as a pregnancy recognition signal in ruminants. Type I interferons have been used as anti-inflammatory agents, but their side effects limit their clinical application. The present study aimed to determine the anti-inflammatory effects of IFN-τ in a lipopolysaccharide-stimulated acute lung injury (ALI) model and in RAW264.7 cells and to confirm the mechanism of action involved. The methods used included histopathology, measuring the lung wet/dry ratio, determining the myeloperoxidase activity, ELISA, qPCR, and western blot. The results revealed that IFN-τ greatly ameliorated the infiltration of inflammatory cells and the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. Further analysis revealed that IFN-τ down-regulated the expression of TLR-2 and TLR-4 mRNA and the activity of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways both in a lipopolysaccharide-induced ALI model and in RAW264.7 cells. The results demonstrated that IFN-τ suppressed the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting the phosphorylation of the NF-κB and MAPK pathways. Thus, IFN-τ may be an optimal target for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The effects of paeoniflorin injection on soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid-1 (sTREM-1) levels in severe septic rats

Paeoniflorin (PAE) is the most abundant compound in Xuebijing injection widely used to treat sepsis. We aimed to investigate effect of PAE on expression of soluble triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells-1 (sTREM-1) in a rat model of sepsis. Wistar rats were divided into Normal, Model, and PAE groups (n=20 each). Endotoxin was administrated at 5 mg/ml/kg in Model and PAE rats to establish rat sepsis model. 1 h after endotoxin administration, PAE was administrated at 4 ml/kg in PAE group once per day for 3 days. Routine blood tests and biochemical indexes were assessed, including aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB). The plasma sTREM-1 level was measured using quantitative ELISA. At the end of experiment, the small intestine, liver, kidney and lung were subjected to pathological examinations. A rat model of sepsis-induced multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) was established successfully with endotoxin administration (5 mg/ml/kg), evidenced by histo-pathological examinations, routine blood tests and biochemical indexes: platelet count decreased and white blood cell count increased (p<0.05), CK-MB and AST increased (p<0.05). PAE treatment significantly reduced the plasma levels of AST, CK-MB, and sTREM-1, compared to Model group (p<0.05). Meanwhile, sepsis-induced damages in the liver, lung, stomach and intestinal mucosa were also markedly ameliorated by PAE treatment. PAE demonstrated a significantly protective effect in a rat model of sepsis by decreasing plasma sTREM-1 level, reducing inflammation, preventing MODS and protecting organ functions.

Phytoconstituents as pharmacotherapeutics in rheumatoid arthritis: challenges and scope of nano/submicromedicine in its effective delivery

Objectives

The present review explores the therapeutic application of herbals in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) therapy, and how nano/submicromedicine can be fit in the scope of its therapeutic delivery in RA has been addressed.

Key findings

Incorporation of bioactive such as polyphenols, thymoquinone, resveratrol, hesperidin, curcumin, celastrol and gambogic acid in a dose-dependent manner showed quite high efficacy for the treatment of RA. It can be attributed to their targeting ability against various inflammatory mediators including nitric oxide (NO), cytokines, chemokines, adhesion molecules, NF-kβ, lipoxygenase (LOXs) and arachidonic acid (AA). Despite the presence of significant merits, the use of these bioactives has several demerits such as poor bioavailability as a function of low aqueous solubility and higher first-pass metabolism upon oral administration. The impact of nano/submicromedicine in the delivery of these bioactives against RA has gained wider attention owing to bioavailability enhancement, higher stability and better efficacy.

Conclusion

Phytoconstituents possess immense potential in RA pharmacotherapy, but the obstacles for their effective delivery can be overcome using nano/submicrocarrier-based drug delivery technologies, which maximize the efficacy of these herbal antirheumatic drugs without any systemic adverse effects.

Assessment of the Therapeutic Effect of Total Glucosides of Peony for Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Juvenile idiopathic arthritis (JIA) is the most common rheumatic disease in children; some clinical trials have reported the effects of total glucosides of peony (TGP) in the treatment of JIA. However, no systematic review has yet been conducted. In this study, we assessed the efficacy and safety in patients with JIA enrolled in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of TGP. We extracted data for studies searched from 8 electronic databases that were searched and also evaluated the methodological quality of the included studies. We assessed the following outcome measures: overall response rate, pain, tender joint count (TJC), swollen joint count (SJC), duration of morning stiffness (DMS), grip strength (GS), rheumatoid factor (RF), erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein (CRP), and adverse effects (AEs) in short term (4-8 weeks), intermediate term (9-26 weeks), and long term (>26 weeks). The final analysis showed that TGP acted as a unique nonbiologic disease-modifying antirheumatic drug (nonbiologic DMARD), and its therapeutic effects were safe and efficacious for the treatment of JIA with few AEs. However, more high-quality RCTs are needed to confirm these therapeutic effects.

Evidences of Herbal Medicine-Derived Natural Products Effects in Inflammatory Lung Diseases

Pulmonary inflammation is a hallmark of many respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and acute respiratory syndrome distress (ARDS). Most of these diseases are treated with anti-inflammatory therapy in order to prevent or to reduce the pulmonary inflammation. Herbal medicine-derived natural products have been used in folk medicine and scientific studies to evaluate the value of these compounds have grown in recent years. Many substances derived from plants have the biological effects in vitro and in vivo, such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids. Among the biological activities of natural products derived from plants can be pointed out the anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antiplatelet, antitumor anti-allergic activities, and antioxidant. Although many reports have evaluated the effects of these compounds in experimental models, studies evaluating clinical trials are scarce in the literature. This review aims to emphasize the effects of these different natural products in pulmonary diseases in experimental models and in humans and pointing out some possible mechanisms of action.

The Efficacy and Safety of the Combination of Total Glucosides of Peony and Leflunomide for the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Systemic Review and Meta-Analysis

Objective. To evaluate the efficacy and safety of the total glucosides of peony (TGP) and leflunomide (LEF) for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Methods. Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) on the efficacy and safety of the combination of TGP and LEF versus LEF alone for the treatment of RA were retrieved by searching PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, the China National Knowledge Infrastructure database, and Wanfang database. Results. Eight RCTs including 643 RA patients were included in the present meta-analysis. The quality of included studies was poor. The levels of ESR (P < 0.0001), CRP (P < 0.0001), and RF (P < 0.0001) in RA patients who received the combination of TGP and LEF were significantly lower than RA patients who received LEF therapy alone. The pooled results suggest that the combination of TGP and LEF caused less abnormal liver function than LEF alone (P = 0.02). No significant difference in the gastrointestinal discomfort was identified between the combination of TGP and LEF and LEF alone groups (P = 0.18). Conclusion. The combination of TGP and LEF in treatment of RA presented the characteristics of notably decreasing the levels of laboratory indexes and higher safety in terms of liver function. However, this conclusion should be further investigated based on a larger sample size.

Pharmacokinetics and disposition of monoterpene glycosides derived from Paeonia lactiflora roots (Chishao) after intravenous dosing of antiseptic XueBiJing injection in human subjects and rats

AIM

Monoterpene glycosides derived from Paeonia lactiflora roots (Chishao) are believed to be pharmacologically important for the antiseptic herbal injection XueBiJing. This study was designed to characterize the pharmacokinetics and disposition of monoterpene glycosides.

METHODS

Systemic exposure to Chishao monoterpene glycosides was assessed in human subjects receiving an intravenous infusion and multiple infusions of XueBiJing injection, followed by assessment of the pharmacokinetics of the major circulating compounds. Supportive rat studies were also performed. Membrane permeability and plasma-protein binding were assessed in vitro.

RESULTS

A total of 18 monoterpene glycosides were detected in XueBiJing injection (content levels, 0.001-2.47 mmol/L), and paeoniflorin accounted for 85.5% of the total dose of monoterpene glycosides detected. In human subjects, unchanged paeoniflorin exhibited considerable levels of systemic exposure with elimination half-lives of 1.2-1.3 h; no significant metabolite was detected. Oxypaeoniflorin and albiflorin exhibited low exposure levels, and the remaining minor monoterpene glycosides were negligible or undetected. Glomerular-filtration-based renal excretion was the major elimination pathway of paeoniflorin, which was poorly bound to plasma protein. In rats, the systemic exposure level of paeoniflorin increased proportionally as the dose was increased. Rat lung, heart, and liver exposure levels of paeoniflorin were lower than the plasma level, with the exception of the kidney level, which was 4.3-fold greater than the plasma level; brain penetration was limited by the poor membrane permeability.

CONCLUSION

Due to its significant systemic exposure and appropriate pharmacokinetic profile, as well as previously reported antiseptic properties, paeoniflorin is a promising XueBiJing constituent of therapeutic importance.

Unique immunomodulatory effect of paeoniflorin on type I and II macrophages activities

It has been widely accepted that macrophages are divided into M1 "pro-inflammatory" macrophages and M2 "anti-inflammatory" macrophages and an uncontrolled macrophage polarization plays an important role in the pathogenesis of different diseases. As the main substance of total glucosides of peony, paeoniflorin (PF), has been widely used to treat autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases for years. Mechanistically, PF has been found to alter activities of many immune cells, which could further reduce inflammation and tissue damage. However, whether and how PF affects macrophages activities in vitro remains unknown. In current study, using M1 and M2 cells generated from mouse bone marrow precursors, we explored the role of PF in regulating M1/M2 cells activity in vitro. The results showed that PF inhibited LPS-induced M1 activity by reducing iNOS expression and NO production via decreasing LPS/NF-κB signaling pathway; whereas, PF enhanced IL-4-provoked M2 function by up-regulating Arg-1 production and activity via increasing IL-4/STAT6 signaling pathway. Our new finding indicates that PF can suppress M1 cells activity and enhance M2 cells function simultaneously, which could help to ameliorate autoimmune and autoinflammatory diseases in clinical treatment.

Cytokine-induced sleep: Neurons respond to TNF with production of chemokines and increased expression of Homer1a in vitro

Interactions of neurons with microglia may play a dominant role in sleep regulation. TNF may exert its somnogeneic effects by promoting attraction of microglia and their processes to the vicinity of dendrites and synapses. We found TNF to stimulate neurons (i) to produce CCL2, CCL7 and CXCL10, chemokines acting on mononuclear phagocytes and (ii) to stimulate the expression of the macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF/Csf1), which leads to elongation of microglia processes. TNF may also act on neurons by affecting the expression of genes essential in sleep-wake behavior. The neuronal expression of Homer1a mRNA, increases during spontaneous and enforced periods of wakefulness. Mice with a deletion of Homer1a show a reduced wakefulness with increased non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep during the dark period. Recently the TNF-dependent increase of NREM sleep in the dark period of mice with CD40-induced immune activation was found to be associated with decreased expression of Homer1a. In the present study we investigated the effects of TNF and IL-1β on gene expression in cultures of the neuronal cell line HT22 and cortical neurons. TNF slightly increased the expression of Homer1a and IL-1β profoundly enhanced the expression of Early growth response 2 (Egr2). The data presented here indicate that the decreased expression of Homer1a, which was found in the dark period of mice with CD40-induced increase of NREM sleep is not due to inhibitory effects of TNF and IL-1β on the expression of Homer1a in neurons.

Altered molecular expression of the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway in mammary tissue of Chinese Holstein cattle with mastitis

Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) mediated activation of the nuclear transcription factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway by mastitis initiates expression of genes associated with inflammation and the innate immune response. In this study, the profile of mastitis-induced differential gene expression in the mammary tissue of Chinese Holstein cattle was investigated by Gene-Chip microarray and bioinformatics. The microarray results revealed that 79 genes associated with the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway were differentially expressed. Of these genes, 19 were up-regulated and 29 were down-regulated in mastitis tissue compared to normal, healthy tissue. Statistical analysis of transcript and protein level expression changes indicated that 10 genes, namely TLR4, MyD88, IL-6, and IL-10, were up-regulated, while, CD14, TNF-α, MD-2, IL-β, NF-κB, and IL-12 were significantly down-regulated in mastitis tissue in comparison with normal tissue. Analyses using bioinformatics database resources, such as the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway analysis and the Gene Ontology Consortium (GO) for term enrichment analysis, suggested that these differently expressed genes implicate different regulatory pathways for immune function in the mammary gland. In conclusion, our study provides new evidence for better understanding the differential expression and mechanisms of the TLR4 /NF-κB signaling pathway in Chinese Holstein cattle with mastitis.