Cordycepin alleviates airway hyperreactivity in a murine model of asthma by attenuating the inflammatory process

Chinese Cordyceps: Bioactive Components, Antitumor Effects and Underlying Mechanism-A Review

Chinese Cordyceps is a valuable source of natural products with various therapeutic effects. It is rich in various active components, of which adenosine, cordycepin and polysaccharides have been confirmed with significant immunomodulatory and antitumor functions. However, the underlying antitumor mechanism remains poorly understood. In this review, we summarized and analyzed the chemical characteristics of the main components and their pharmacological effects and mechanism on immunomodulatory and antitumor functions. The analysis revealed that Chinese Cordyceps promotes immune cells' antitumor function by via upregulating immune responses and downregulating immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment and resetting the immune cells' phenotype. Moreover, Chinese Cordyceps can inhibit the growth and metastasis of tumor cells by death (including apoptosis and autophagy) induction, cell-cycle arrest, and angiogenesis inhibition. Recent evidence has revealed that the signal pathways of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB), cysteine-aspartic proteases (caspases) and serine/threonine kinase Akt were involved in the antitumor mechanisms. In conclusion, Chinese Cordyceps, one type of magic mushroom, can be potentially developed as immunomodulator and anticancer therapeutic agents.

Cordyceps militaris as a Bio Functional Food Source: Pharmacological Potential, Anti-Inflammatory Actions and Related Molecular Mechanisms

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a medicinal mushroom possessing a variety of biofunctionalities. It has several biologically important components such as polysaccharides and others. The diverse pharmacological potential of C. militaris has generated interest in reviewing the current scientific literature, with a particular focus on prevention and associated molecular mechanisms in inflammatory diseases. Due to rising global demand, research on C. militaris has continued to increase in recent years. C. militaris has shown the potential for inhibiting inflammation-related events, both in in vivo and in vitro experiments. Inflammation is a multifaceted biological process that contributes to the development and severity of diseases, including cancer, colitis, and allergies. These functions make C. militaris a suitable functional food for inhibiting inflammatory responses such as the regulation of proinflammatory cytokines. Therefore, on the basis of existing information, the current study provides insights towards the understanding of anti-inflammatory activity-related mechanisms. This article presents a foundation for clinical use, and analyzes the roadmap for future studies concerning the medical use of C. militaris and its constituents in the next generation of anti-inflammatory drugs.

Antioxidant Activity of Mushroom Extracts/Polysaccharides-Their Antiviral Properties and Plausible AntiCOVID-19 Properties

Mushrooms have been long accomplished for their medicinal properties and bioactivity. The ancients benefitted from it, even before they knew that there was more to mushrooms than just the culinary aspect. This review addresses the benefits of mushrooms and specifically dwells on the positive attributes of mushroom polysaccharides. Compared to mushroom research, mushroom polysaccharide-based reports were observed to be significantly less frequent. This review highlights the antioxidant properties and mechanisms as well as consolidates the various antioxidant applications of mushroom polysaccharides. The biological activities of mushroom polysaccharides are also briefly discussed. The antiviral properties of mushrooms and their polysaccharides have been reviewed and presented. The lacunae in implementation of the antiviral benefits into antiCOVID-19 pursuits has been highlighted. The need for expansion and extrapolation of the knowns of mushrooms to extend into the unknown is emphasized.

A Systematic Review of the Biological Effects of Cordycepin

We conducted a systematic review of the literature on the effects of cordycepin on cell survival and proliferation, inflammation, signal transduction and animal models. A total of 1204 publications on cordycepin were found by the cut-off date of 1 February 2021. After application of the exclusion criteria, 791 papers remained. These were read and data on the chosen subjects were extracted. We found 192 papers on the effects of cordycepin on cell survival and proliferation and calculated a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 135 µM. Cordycepin consistently repressed cell migration (26 papers) and cellular inflammation (53 papers). Evaluation of 76 papers on signal transduction indicated consistently reduced PI3K/mTOR/AKT and ERK signalling and activation of AMPK. In contrast, the effects of cordycepin on the p38 and Jun kinases were variable, as were the effects on cell cycle arrest (53 papers), suggesting these are cell-specific responses. The examination of 150 animal studies indicated that purified cordycepin has many potential therapeutic effects, including the reduction of tumour growth (37 papers), repression of pain and inflammation (9 papers), protecting brain function (11 papers), improvement of respiratory and cardiac conditions (8 and 19 papers) and amelioration of metabolic disorders (8 papers). Nearly all these data are consistent with cordycepin mediating its therapeutic effects through activating AMPK, inhibiting PI3K/mTOR/AKT and repressing the inflammatory response. We conclude that cordycepin has excellent potential as a lead for drug development, especially for age-related diseases. In addition, we discuss the remaining issues around the mechanism of action, toxicity and biodistribution of cordycepin.

Schisandrin B Attenuates Airway Inflammation by Regulating the NF-κB/Nrf2 Signaling Pathway in Mouse Models of Asthma

Background

Asthma is a complex inflammatory disorder that plagues a large number of people. Schisandrin B is an active ingredient of the traditional Chinese herbal medicine Schisandra with various proven physiological activities such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. In this study, we explored the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects and provided the mechanistic insights into the activity of schisandrin B in a mouse model of ovalbumin- (OVA-) induced allergic asthma.

Methods

Male BALB/c mice were sensitized and challenged with OVA to induce asthma and treated with various doses (15 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, and 60 mg/kg) of SCH to alleviate the features of allergic asthma, airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammatory response, OVA-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)E level, and pathological injury.

Results

Schisandrin B significantly attenuated the airway hyperresponsiveness induced by OVA. Moreover, schisandrin B administration suppressed inflammatory responses, reduced the level of IgE, and attenuated pathological injury. Mechanistically, schisandrin B treatment promoted the activation of nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), but suppressed the stimulation of the NF-κB pathway caused by OVA.

Conclusion

Taken together, our study suggests that schisandrin B attenuates the features of asthmatic lungs by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway and activating the Nrf2 signaling pathway.

The treatment of asthma using the Chinese Materia Medica

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Asthma is a costly global health problem that negatively influences the quality of life of patients. The Chinese Materia Medica (CMM) contains remedies that have been used for the treatment of asthma for millennia. This article strives to systematically summarize the current research progress so that more comprehensive examinations of various databases related to CMM anti-asthma drugs, can be performed, so as to sequentially provide effective basic data for development and application of anti-asthma drugs based on the CMM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The research data published over the past 20 years for asthma treatment based on traditional CMM remedies were retrieved and collected from libraries and online databases (PubMed, ScienceDirect, Elsevier, Spring Link, Web of Science, PubChem Compound, Wan Fang, CNKI, Baidu, and Google Scholar). Information was also added from classic CMM, literature, conference papers on classic herbal formulae, and dissertations (PhD or Masters) based on traditional Chinese medicine.

RESULTS

This review systematically summarizes the experimental studies on the treatment of asthma with CMM, covering the effective chemical components, typical asthma models, important mechanisms and traditional anti-asthma CMM formulae. The therapy value of the CMM for anti-asthma is clarified, and the original data and theoretical research foundation are provided for the development of new anti-asthmatic data and research for the CMM.

CONCLUSIONS

Substantial progress against asthma has been made through relevant experimental research based on the CMM. These advances improved the theoretical basis of anti-asthma drugs for CMM and provided a theoretical basis for the application of a asthma treatment that is unique. By compiling these data, it is expected that the CMM will now contain a clearer mechanism of action and a greater amount of practical data that can be used for future anti-asthma drug research.

Trends in the Immunomodulatory Effects of Cordyceps militaris: Total Extracts, Polysaccharides and Cordycepin

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a fungus with a long history of widespread use in folk medicine, and its biological and medicinal functions are well studied. A crucial pharmacological effect of C. militaris is immunomodulation. In this review, we catalog the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris, namely total extracts, polysaccharides and cordycepin. Total extracts obtained using water or 50% ethyl alcohol and polysaccharides from C. militaris were discovered to tend to promote type 1 immunity, whereas total extracts obtained using 70-80% ethyl alcohol and cordycepin from C. militaris were more likely to promote type 2 immunity. This article is the first to classify the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris. In addition, we discovered a relationship between different segments or extracts and differing types of immunity. This review can provide the readers a comprehensive understanding on the immunomodulatory effects of the precious folk medicine and guidance on its use for both health people and those with an immunodeficiency.

DK-1108 exerts anti-inflammatory activity against phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate-induced inflammation and protective effect against OVA-induced allergic asthma

There is an increasing interest in natural products and their derivatives with therapeutic benefits and less side effects compared to steroid therapy. Benzofuran derivatives display biological effects including anti-inflammatory effects. The present study aims to investigate whether (3-(7-methoxy-2-p-tolyl benzofuran-5-yl) propan-1-ol) (DK-1108), new synthetic benzofuran compound exerts anti-asthmatic effects in vitro and in vivo. DK-1108 strongly reduced the production of inflammatory mediators, cytokines and chemokines in RAW264.7 and A549 cells. DK-1108 significantly regulated the levels of AKT/MAPKs/c-Jun activation, AP-1 luciferase activity and ICAM-1 expression. Furthermore, DK-1108 effectively suppressed the adhesion of A549 and EOL-1 cells. In OVA-induced asthmatic mice, DK-1108 decreased the levels of IL-5/IL-13/IgE production, eosinophils/macrophages influx, ICAM-1/MCP-1 expression, mucus secretion and airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR). These effects of DK-1108 were accompanied by downregulation of MAPKs activation. Therefore, we suggest that DK-1108 exerts protective effect against airway inflammation and mucus overproduction, and therefore could be valuable therapeutic agent for treatment in asthma.

Anti-inflammatory effects of cordycepin: A review

Cordycepin is the major bioactive component extracted from Cordyceps militaris. In recent years, cordycepin has received increasing attention owing to its multiple pharmacological activities. This study reviews recent researches on the anti-inflammatory effects and the related activities of cordycepin. The results from our review indicate that cordycepin exerts protective effects against inflammatory injury for many diseases including acute lung injury (ALI), asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, Parkinson's disease (PD), hepatitis, atherosclerosis, and atopic dermatitis. Cordycepin regulates the NF-κB, RIP2/Caspase-1, Akt/GSK-3β/p70S6K, TGF-β/Smads, and Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathways among others. Several studies focusing on cordycepin derivatives were reviewed and found to down metabolic velocity of cordycepin and increase its bioavailability. Moreover, cordycepin enhanced immunity, inhibited the proliferation of viral RNA, and suppressed cytokine storms, thereby suggesting its potential to treat COVID-19 and other viral infections. From the collected and reviewed information, this article provides the theoretical basis for the clinical applications of cordycepin and discusses the path for future studies focusing on expanding the medicinal use of cordycepin. Taken together, cordycepin and its analogs show great potential as the next new class of anti-inflammatory agents.

Cordycepin, a metabolite of Cordyceps militaris, reduces immune-related gene expression in insects

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High doses of cordycepin are lethal to G. mellonella.

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Cordycepin interacts with EPF to increase the rate of G. mellonella mortality.

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Cordycepin reduces immune-related gene expression in G. mellonella and S2r+ cells.

Hypocrealean entomopathogenic fungi (EPF) (Sordariomycetes, Ascomycota) are natural regulators of insect populations in terrestrial environments. Their obligately-killing life-cycle means that there is likely to be strong selection pressure for traits that allow them to evade the effects of the host immune system. In this study, we quantified the effects of cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine), a secondary metabolite produced by Cordyceps militaris (Hypocreales, Cordycipitaceae), on insect susceptibility to EPF infection and on insect immune gene expression. Application of the immune stimulant curdlan (20 µg ml⁻¹, linear beta-1,3-glucan, a constituent of fungal cell walls) to Drosophila melanogaster S2r+ cells resulted in a significant increase in the expression of the immune effector gene metchnikowin compared to a DMSO-only control, but there was no significant increase when curdlan was co-applied with 25 µg ml⁻¹ cordycepin dissolved in DMSO. Injection of cordycepin into larvae of Galleria mellonella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) resulted in dose-dependent mortality (LC₅₀ of cordycepin = 2.1 mg per insect 6 days after treatment). Incubating conidia of C. militaris and Beauveria bassiana (Hypocreales, Cordycipitaceae; an EPF that does not synthesize cordycepin) with 3.0 mg ml⁻¹ cordycepin had no effect on the numbers of conidia germinating in vitro. Co-injection of G. mellonella with a low concentration of cordycepin (3.0 mg ml⁻¹) plus 10 or 100 conidia per insect of C. militaris or B. bassiana caused a significant decrease in insect median survival time compared to injection with the EPF on their own. Analysis of predicted vs. observed mortalities indicated a synergistic interaction between cordycepin and the EPF. The injection of C. militaris and B. bassiana into G. mellonella resulted in increased expression of the insect immune effector genes lysozyme, IMPI and gallerimycin at 72 h post injection, but this did not occur when the EPF were co-injected with 3.0 mg ml⁻¹ cordycepin. In addition, we observed increased expression of IMPI and lysozyme at 48 h after injection with C. militaris, B. bassiana and sham injection (indicating a wounding response), but this was also prevented by application of cordycepin. These results suggest that cordycepin has potential to act as a suppressor of the immune response during fungal infection of insect hosts.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of a Cordyceps sinensis Mycelium Culture Extract (Cs-4) on Rodent Models of Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma

Allergic rhinitis and asthma are common chronic allergic diseases of the respiratory tract, which are accompanied by immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated inflammation and the involvement of type 2 T helper cells, mast cells, and eosinophils. Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc is a fungal parasite on the larva of Lepidoptera. It has been considered to be a health-promoting food and, also, one of the best-known herbal remedies for the treatment of airway diseases, such as asthma and lung inflammation. In the present study, we demonstrated the antiallergic rhinitis effect of Cs-4, a water extract prepared from the mycelium culture of Cordyceps sinensis (Berk) Sacc, on ovalbumin (OVA)-induced allergic rhinitis in mice and the anti-asthmatic effect of Cs-4 in a rat model of asthma. Treatment with Cs-4 suppressed the nasal symptoms induced in OVA-sensitized and challenged mice. The inhibition was associated with a reduction in IgE/OVA-IgE and interleukin (IL)-4/IL-13 levels in the nasal fluid. Cs-4 treatment also decreased airway responsiveness and ameliorated the scratching behavior in capsaicin-challenged rats. It also reduced plasma IgE levels, as well as IgE and eosinophil peroxidase levels, in the bronchoalveolar fluid. Cs-4 treatment completely suppressed the increases in IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 levels in rat lung tissue. In conclusion, our results suggest that Cs-4 has the potential to alleviate immune hypersensitivity reactions in allergic rhinitis and asthma.

Network pharmacology-based study of the protective mechanism of conciliatory anti-allergic decoction on asthma

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to explore the underlying anti-asthma pharmacological mechanisms of conciliatory anti-allergic decoction (CAD) with a network pharmacology approach.

METHODS

Traditional Chinese medicine related databases were utilized to screen the active ingredients of CAD. Targets of CAD for asthma treatment were also identified based on related databases. The protein-protein interaction network, biological function and KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, and molecular docking of the targets were performed. Furthermore, an asthma mouse model experiment involving HE staining, AB-PAS staining, and ELISA was also performed to assess the anti-asthma effect of CAD.

RESULTS

There were 77 active ingredients in CAD, including quercetin, kaempferol, stigmasterol, luteolin, cryptotanshinone, beta-sitosterol, acacetin, naringenin, baicalin, and 48 related targets for asthma treatment, mainly including TNF, IL4, IL5, IL10, IL13 and IFN-γ, were identified with ideal molecular docking binding scores by network pharmacology analysis. KEGG pathway analysis revealed that these targets were directly involved in the asthma pathway, Th1 and Th2 cell differentiation, and signaling pathways correlated with asthma (NF-κB, IL17, T cell receptor, TNF, JAK-STAT signaling pathways, etc.). Animal experiments also confirmed that CAD could attenuate inflammatory cell invasion, goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus secretion. The levels of the major targets TNF-α, IL4, IL5, and IL13 can also be regulated by CAD in an asthma mouse model.

CONCLUSION

The anti-asthma mechanism of CAD possibly stemmed from the active ingredients targeting asthma-related targets, which are involved in the asthma pathway and signaling pathways to exhibit therapeutic effects.

Yarsagumba is a Promising Therapeutic Option for Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension due to the Potent Anti-Proliferative and Vasorelaxant Properties

Background and objectives: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is characterized by the vasoconstriction and abnormally proliferative vascular cells. The available allopathic treatment options for PH are still not able to cure the disease. Alternative medicine is becoming popular and drawing the attention of the general public and scientific communities. The entomogenous fungus Yarsagumba (Cordyceps sinensis) and its biologically active ingredient cordycepin may represent the therapeutic option for this incurable disease, owing to their anti-inflammatory, vasodilatory and anti-oxidative effects. Methods: In this study, we investigated whether Yarsagumba extract and cordycepin possess anti-proliferative and vasorelaxant properties in the context of PH, using 5-bromo-2’-deoxyuridine assay and isolated mice lungs, respectively. Results: Our results revealed that Yarsagumba extract and its bioactive compound cordycepin significantly attenuated the proliferation of human pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells derived from donor and PH subjects. In isolated murine lungs, only Yarsagumba extract, but not cordycepin, resulted in vasodilatation, indicating the probable existence of other bioactive metabolites present in Yarsagumba that may be responsible for this outcome. Conclusion: Future comprehensive in vivo and in vitro research is crucially needed to discover the profound mechanistic insights with regard to this promising therapeutic potency of Yarsagumba extract and to provide further evidence as to whether it can be used as a strategy for the treatment of PH.

Cordyceps polysaccharide ameliorates airway inflammation in an ovalbumin-induced mouse model of asthma via TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathway

Allergic asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by airflow obstruction, airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), airway inflammation, and mucus overproduction. Cordyceps polysaccharide (CPS) is one of the main bioactive compounds of Cordyceps militarisis, a traditional Chinese medicine. In this study, we established a mouse model of asthma using ovalbumin (OVA) challenge and evaluated the potential regulatory effect of CPS (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg) on asthmatic mice. These results showed that the asthmatic mice treated with CPS suppressed the secretion of eotaxin, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, and IFN-γ in the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and decreased serum IgE levels compared to the vehicle-treated mice. CPS also alleviated inflammatory cell infiltration, goblet cell hyperplasia, and the increases of inflammatory cells in the mouse model of asthma. In addition, OVA-induced AHR was inhibited by CPS treatment. Further analyses of protein expression revealed that CPS inhibited the activation of transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)/Smad pathway in mice with asthma. These findings indicated that CPS might serve as a potential therapeutic agent for the management of allergic asthma.

Therapeutic Potential and Biological Applications of Cordycepin and Metabolic Mechanisms in Cordycepin-Producing Fungi

Cordycepin (3′-deoxyadenosine), a cytotoxic nucleoside analogue found in Cordyceps militaris, has attracted much attention due to its therapeutic potential and biological value. Cordycepin interacts with multiple medicinal targets associated with cancer, tumor, inflammation, oxidant, polyadenylation of mRNA, etc. The investigation of the medicinal drug actions supports the discovery of novel targets and the development of new drugs to enhance the therapeutic potency and reduce toxicity. Cordycepin may be of great value owing to its medicinal potential as an external drug, such as in cosmeceutical, traumatic, antalgic and muscle strain applications. In addition, the biological application of cordycepin, for example, as a ligand, has been used to uncover molecular structures. Notably, studies that investigated the metabolic mechanisms of cordycepin-producing fungi have yielded significant information related to the biosynthesis of high levels of cordycepin. Here, we summarized the medicinal targets, biological applications, cytotoxicity, delivery carriers, stability, and pros/cons of cordycepin in clinical applications, as well as described the metabolic mechanisms of cordycepin in cordycepin-producing fungi. We posit that new approaches, including single-cell analysis, have the potential to enhance medicinal potency and unravel all facets of metabolic mechanisms of cordycepin in Cordyceps militaris.

Cordycepin Accelerates Osteoblast Mineralization and Attenuates Osteoclast Differentiation In Vitro

Bone homeostasis destruction is triggered by the uncontrolled activity of osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Targeting both the regulation of bone formation and resorption is a promising strategy for treating bone disorders. Cordycepin is a major component of Chinese caterpillar fungus Cordyceps militaris. It exerts a variety of biological actions in various cells and animal models. However, its function on bone metabolism remains unclear. In the present study, we discovered a dual-action function of cordycepin in murine MC3T3-E1 and RAW264.7 cells. MC3T3-E1 cells were cultured in an osteogenic medium in the presence of 1 μM cordycepin for up two weeks. Cordycepin was used for effects of osteoblast and osteoclast differentiation. Cell viability was measured using the MTT assay. Osteoblast differentiation was confirmed by alizarin red staining, ALP activity, western blot, and real-time PCR. Osteoclast differentiation and autophagic activity were confirmed via TRAP staining, pit formation assay, confocal microscopy, western blot, and real-time PCR. Cordycepin promoted osteoblast differentiation, matrix mineralization, and induction of osteoblast markers via BMP2/Runx2/Osterix pathway. On the other hand, RAW264.7 cells were differentiated into osteoclast by RANKL treatment for 72 h. 1 μM cordycepin significantly inhibited RANKL-induced osteoclast formation and resorption activity through disturbing the actin ring-formatted sealing zone and activating cathepsin K and MMP9. These findings indicate that cordycepin might be an innovative dual-action therapeutic agent for bone disease caused by an imbalance of osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

Nucleosides isolated from Ophiocordyceps sinensis inhibit cigarette smoke extract-induced inflammation via the SIRT1-nuclear factor-κB/p65 pathway in RAW264.7 macrophages and in COPD mice

Background

Ophiocordyceps sinensis (C. sinensis) extracts have been found to have a therapeutic effect on patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) plays an important role in the regulation of inflammatory mediators and correlates with lung function and COPD exacerbations. The objective of this work was to explore the anti-inflammatory effect and preliminary pathways of nucleosides from cultured C. sinensis on RAW264.7 macrophages and COPD mice.

Materials and methods

The nucleosides were extracted from cultured C. sinensis powder and further purified by macroporous resin D101 and glucan G10 columns. Inflammation and oxidative stress models in RAW264.7 macrophages and in mice were established by injection of cigarette smoke extract (CSE). We then examined how the isolated nucleosides regulated the production of the associated inflammatory mediators in vitro and in vivo by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and Western blot.

Results

The nucleosides inhibited inflammatory mediator expression of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, interleukin-1β, and nitric oxide in both the CSE-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and mice. Moreover, the nucleosides elevated SIRT1 activation and suppressed nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB)/p65 activation in vitro and in vivo. Nucleoside treatment significantly decreased the levels of the inflammatory mediators in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) and serum of the CSE-induced mice. The nucleosides also altered the recruitment of inflammatory cells in BALF and improved characteristic features of the lungs in the CSE-induced mice.

Conclusion

These results show that the nucleosides suppressed COPD inflammation through the SIRT1–NF-κB/p65 pathway, suggesting that the nucleosides may be partly responsible for the therapeutic effects of cultured C. sinensis on COPD patients.

Progressive increase in allergen concentration abrogates immune tolerance in ovalbumin-induced murine model of chronic asthma

Persistent inflammation and remodeling of airways are the major hallmarks of asthma. Though airway inflammation diminishes in ovalbumin (OVA)-based mouse model of chronic asthma owing to immune-tolerance linked with repeated allergen exposure, which limits the application of the disease model. Accordingly, the present study was designed to develop a murine model of chronic asthma which presents persistent airway inflammation coupled with remodeling traits. Herein, OVA-sensitized BALB/c mice were challenged with increasing (modified protocol) or constant concentration (conventional protocol) of the allergen for 6 weeks; 3 times/week. The results, indeed, revealed that mice subjected to modified protocol demonstrate an improved response to the allergen as reflected by the significant increase in inflammatory cells particularly, eosinophils in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared to conventional protocol. Moreover, the expression of Th2 cytokines and their responsible transcription factors (GATA-3 and STAT-6) was markedly enhanced in lungs. The increase in inflammation was further accompanied by a marked increase in mucus production, collagen deposition, and the expression of allied factors (Muc5ac, Col1α1, and α-SMA). Interestingly, pre-treatment of dexamethasone, a corticosteroid (0.5 mg/kg b.wt., i.p.), suppressed the allergen-induced airway inflammation and mucus production without altering collagen deposition. Failure of dexamethasone seems to be related to their ineffectiveness to modulate the expression of TGF-β, MMP-9, COL1α1, and α-SMA. Overall, our results strongly suggest that mice underwent modified chronic protocol bears more resemblance with asthmatics as it imitates persistent airway inflammation allied with steroid-refractory remodeling traits; hence, may be useful for the evaluation of new/alternative drugs in steroid-refractory asthmatic conditions.

Tulobuterol patch alleviates allergic asthmic inflammation by blockade of Syk and NF-κB activation in mice

Background

Tulobuterol patch, one of strongest bronchodilators, was recently shown to improve bronchial hyperresponsiveness and significantly decrease the sputum eosinophil counts by combining with nonspecific anti-inflammatory drugs on patients with asthma. However, there is limited study on the anti-inflammatory activities of tulobuterol patch and its potential machenism.

Results

The tulobuterol patch significantly ameliorated inflammatory cell infiltration in the lung tissue, reduced the number of total leukocytes and its differential count, markedly reduced the production of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, CCL-11 and IL-4 in bronchial alveolar lavage fluid, as well as a reduction in IL-4/IFN-γ ratio. Tulobuterol patch exhibited the best effect on allergic inflammation compared with formoterol and salbutamol. Furthermore, tulobuterol patch treatment significantly suppressed the expression and activation of Syk and its downdream signaling NF-κB and p-NF-κB.

Conclusions

The present studies revealed that tulobuterol patch effectively ameliorated airway inflammatory responses in allergic asthma, and its mechanisms, at least partially, via down-regulating Syk/NF-κB pathway.

Methods

An ovalbumin induced allergic asthma mouse model were used, and the effects of tulobuterol patch on allergic airway inflammation were evaluated. Also, its anti-airway inflammatory potential was compared with two other β₂-agonists, salbutamol and formoterol. Its possible anti-inflammatory mechanisms were identified by using western blotting and immunohistochemistry.

Cordycepin: A Biotherapeutic Molecule from Medicinal Mushroom

Cordyceps is one of the most well-known mushroom with numerous bioactive compounds possess wide range of biotherapeutic activities. This mushroom has been used for many years as medicinal food particularly in China and in different regions of south East Asia. Cordycepin is a nucleoside compound extracted from different species of Cordyceps and considered as one of the most important bioactive metabolites of this fungus. This low molecular weight compound exhibit several medicinal functions as anticancer, antitumor, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory agent. In this chapter we reviewed recent published research on the cordycepin chemistry, production, extraction, isolation, purification, biotherapeutic activities and applications.

Cordycepin confers neuroprotection in mice models of intracerebral hemorrhage via suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Neuroinflammation has been recognized as a major contributor to brain injury caused by intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome acts as an important mediator of inflammatory response in various inflammation-related diseases including hemorrhagic insults. Cordycepin has recently been shown to possess anti-inflammatory effect; however, its role and the possible underlying mechanisms in ICH remain unclear. This study was designed to investigate the neuroprotective effect of cordycepin in mice models of ICH and to elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. ICH was induced in male ICR mice by injecting autologous blood infusion stereotactically. Cordycepin was then given intraperitoneally (i.p.) at 30 min after ICH induction. The results demonstrated that NLRP3 inflammasome was activated and exacerbated the inflammatory progression after ICH. Cordycepin treatment significantly alleviated neurological deficits, brain edema, and perihematomal tissue damage following ICH. These changes were accompanied by downregulated NLRP3 inflammasome components expression and a reduction of production and release of inflammasome substrates interleukin-1beta (IL-1β) and interleukin-18 (IL-18). Furthermore, cordycepin ameliorated neuronal death in the perihematomal regions, accompanied by a large reduction in the expression of high-mobility group protein B 1 (HMGB1) post-ICH. In conclusion, this study provides in vivo evidence that cordycepin confers neuroprotective effect in the models of ICH, possibly through the suppression of NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Cordycepin induces apoptosis of human acute monocytic leukemia cells via downregulation of the ERK/Akt signaling pathway

The aim of the present study was to examine the apoptotic effect of cordycepin (COR) on human THP-1 acute monocytic leukemia cells. THP-1 cells were exposed to different concentrations of COR for 24, 48, 72 or 96 h. The cell viability and apoptotic rate were analyzed. The gene expression of Akt1, Akt2, Akt3, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) were assessed by reverse-transcription quantitative PCR. Western blot analysis was used to detect the protein levels of phosphorylated (p)-Akt, p-extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cleaved caspase-3. It was found that the viability of THP-1 cells was inhibited by COR in a dose- and time-dependent manner. After treatment with 200 µM COR for 24 h, the percentage of apoptotic cells was significantly increased. COR also downregulated the levels of Bcl-2, Akt1, Akt2 and Akt3, and elevated the expression of Bax. The protein levels of p-Akt and p-ERK were suppressed and cleaved caspase-3 was increased after treatment of COR. In conclusion, COR was found to induce apoptosis of THP-1 acute monocytic leukemia cells through downregulation of ERK/Akt signaling.

SIRT1 inhibition promotes atherosclerosis through impaired autophagy

SIRT1, a highly conserved NAD⁺-dependent protein deacetylase, plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis and therapy of atherosclerosis (AS). The aim of this study is to investigate the potential effects of SIRT1 on AS in ApoE^-/- mice and the underlying mechanisms of autophagy in an ox-LDL-stimulated human monocyte cell line, THP-1. In vivo, the accelerated atherosclerotic progression of mice was established by carotid collar placement; then, mice were treated for 4 weeks with a SIRT1-specific inhibitor, EX-527. The atherosclerotic lesion size of EX-527-treated mice was greatly increased compared to that of the mice in the control group. Immunostaining protocols confirmed that the inhibition of SIRT1 during plaque initiation and progression enhanced the extent of intraplaque macrophage infiltration and impaired the autophagy process. In vitro cultured THP-1 macrophages exposed to ox-LDL were utilized to study the link between the SIRT1 function, autophagy flux, pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, and foam cell formation using different methods. Our data showed that ox-LDL markedly suppressed SIRT1 protein expression and the autophagy level, while it elevated the MCP-1 production and lipid uptake. Additionally, the application of the SIRT1 inhibitor EX-527 or SIRT1 siRNA further attenuated ox-LDL-induced autophagy inhibition. In conclusion, our results show that the inhibition of SIRT1 promoted atherosclerotic plaque development in ApoE^-/- mice by increasing the MCP-1 expression and macrophage accumulation. In particular, we demonstrate that blocking SIRT1 can exacerbate the acetylation of key autophagy machinery, the Atg5 protein, which further regulates the THP-1 macrophage-derived foam cell formation that is triggered by ox-LDL.

Cordycepin inhibits chondrocyte hypertrophy of mesenchymal stem cells through PI3K/Bapx1 and Notch signaling pathway

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are widely used in cartilage tissue engineering to repair articular cartilage defects. However, hypertrophy of chondrocytes derived from MSCs might hinder the stabilization of hyaline cartilage. Thus, it is very important to find a suitable way to maintain the chondrogenic phenotype of chondrocytes. It has been reported that cordycepin has anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor functions. However, the role of cordycepin in chondrocyte hypertrophy remains unclear. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine the effect of cordycepin on chondrogenesis and chondrocyte hypertrophy in MSCs and ATDC5 cells. Cordycepin upregulated chondrogenic markers including Sox9 and collagen type II while down-regulated hypertrophic markers including Runx2 and collagen type X. Further exploration showed that cordycepin promoted chondrogenesis through inhibiting Nrf2 while activating BMP signaling. Besides, cordycepin suppressed chondrocyte hypertrophy through PI3K/Bapx1 pathway and Notch signaling. Our results indicated cordycepin had the potential to maintain chondrocyte phenotype and reconstruct engineered cartilage. [BMB Reports 2016; 49(10): 548-553]

Esculetin Attenuates Th2 and Th17 Responses in an Ovalbumin-Induced Asthmatic Mouse Model

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the anti-asthmatic effect of esculetin (ES) and explore its potential mechanism with a mouse model of allergic asthma. A total number of 50 mice were randomly assigned to five groups: control, model, dexamethasone (Dex, 2 mg/kg), and ES (20 mg/kg, 40 mg/kg). Mouse asthma model was developed with the sensitization and challenge of ovalbumin (OVA). The levels of IgE in serum, eosinophilia infiltration, Th2/Th17 cytokines, Th17 cell frequency, histological condition, and the protein expressions of RORγt, GATA3 were detected. Our study demonstrated that ES inhibited, OVA-induced eosinophil count, interleukin-4 (IL-4), IL-5, IL-13, and IL-17A levels were recovered in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Flow cytometry (FCM) studies revealed that ES substantially inhibited Th17 cells' percentage. Western blot study also indicated that ES downregulated RORγt and GATA3 expressions. Meanwhile, ES had beneficial effects on the histological alteration. These findings suggested that ES might effectively ameliorate the progression of asthma and could be used as a therapy for patients with allergic asthma.

Herbal Medicine Cordyceps sinensis Improves Health-Related Quality of Life in Moderate-to-Severe Asthma

Moderate-to-severe asthma has a substantial impact on the health-related quality of life (HR-QOL) of the patients. Cordyceps sinensis is a traditional Chinese medicine that is evaluated clinically for the treatment of many diseases, such as chronic allograft nephropathy, diabetic kidney disease, and lung fibrosis. In order to investigate the effects of Cordyceps sinensis on patients with moderate-to-severe persistent asthma, 120 subjects were randomized to receive Corbin capsule containing Cordyceps sinensis for 3 months (treatment group, n = 60), whereas the control group (n = 60) did not receive treatment with Corbin capsule. Inhaled corticosteroid and as-needed β-agonists were used in the treatment of both groups. HR-QOL was measured with the Juniper's Asthma Quality of Life Questionnaire (AQLQ). The incidence of asthma exacerbation, pulmonary function testing, and serum measurements of inflammatory mediators were also evaluated. The results showed that the treatment group indicated a significant increase in AQLQ scores and lung function compared with the control group. The expression levels of the inflammation markers IgE, ICAM-1, IL-4, and MMP-9 in the serum were decreased and IgG increased in the treatment group compared with the control group. Therefore, the conclusion was reached that a formulation of Cordyceps sinensis improved the HR-QOL, asthma symptoms, lung function, and inflammatory profile of the patients with moderate-to-severe asthma. This trial is registered with ChiCTR-IPC-16008730.

Toxic and adjuvant effects of silica nanoparticles on ovalbumin-induced allergic airway inflammation in mice

Background

Silica nanoparticles (SNPs) can easily enter in respiratory system via inhalation because of their low molecular weight and ease of dispersion. Toxicity and adverse effects of SNPs vary according to the physical characteristics of the particle.

Methods

To evaluate the toxic and adjuvant effects of 3 types of SNPs in the airway system, six-week-old female BALB/c mice were intranasally administered 3 types of SNPs (spherical [S-SNP], mesoporous [M-SNP], and polyethylene glycol-conjugated [P-SNP]) alone or SNPs/ovalbumin (OVA), three times weekly for 2 weeks. Airway hyper-responsiveness (AHR), bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), cytokine levels, and histology of the lungs were analyzed.

Results

The S-SNPs/OVA group and M-SNPs/OVA group showed significant AHR, compared to the control group. Among all SNP-treated groups, the group administered SNPs/OVA showed greater inflammatory cell infiltration in BALF, extensive pathological changes, and higher cytokine levels (IL-5, IL-13, IL-1β, and IFN-γ) than those administered SNPs alone or saline/OVA.

Conclusion

Exposure to SNPs alone and SNPs/OVA induced toxicity in the respiratory system. SNPs alone showed significant toxic effects on the airway system. Meanwhile, SNPs/OVA exerted adjuvant effects to OVA of inducing allergic airway inflammation. In particular, M-SNPs showed the most severe airway inflammation in both direct toxicity and adjuvant effect assays. P-SNPs induced less inflammation than the other types of SNPs in both models.

Anti-inflammatory Cerebrosides from Cultivated Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (bei-chong-chaw, northern worm grass) is a precious and edible entomopathogenic fungus, which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as a general booster for the nervous system, metabolism, and immunity. Saccharides, nucleosides, mannitol, and sterols were isolated from this fungus. The biological activity of C. militaris was attributed to the saccharide and nucleoside contents. In this study, the aqueous methanolic fraction of C. militaris fruiting bodies exhibited a significant anti-inflammatory activity. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the active fraction led to the isolation of eight compounds, including one new and two known cerebrosides (ceramide derivatives), two nucleosides, and three sterols. Cordycerebroside A (1), the new cerebroside, along with soyacerebroside I (2) and glucocerebroside (3) inhibited the accumulation of pro-inflammatory iNOS protein and reduced the expression of COX-2 protein in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. This is the first study on the isolation of cerebrosides with anti-inflammatory activity from this TCM.