The flavonoid kurarinone inhibits clinical progression of EAE through inhibiting Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation and proliferation

Prenylated Flavonoids in Sophora flavescens: A Systematic Review of Their Phytochemistry and Pharmacology

Sophora flavescens has been widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for over 1700 years. This plant is known for its heat-clearing, damp-drying, insecticidal, and diuretic properties. Phytochemical research has identified prenylated flavonoids as a unique class of bioactive compounds in S. flavescens. Recent pharmacological studies reveal that the prenylated flavonoids from S. flavescens (PFS) exhibit potent antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and glycolipid metabolism-regulating activities, offering significant therapeutic benefits for various diseases. However, the pharmacokinetics and toxicological profiles of PFS have not been systematically studied. Despite the diverse biological effects of prenylated flavonoid compounds against similar diseases, their structure-activity relationship is not yet fully understood. This review aims to summarize the latest findings regarding the chemical composition, drug metabolism, pharmacological properties, toxicity, and structure-activity relationship of prenylated flavonoids from S. flavescens. It seeks to highlight their potential for clinical use and suggest directions for future related studies.

Naringenin: its chemistry and roles in neuroprotection

According to epidemiological research, as the population ages, neurological illnesses are becoming a bigger issue. Despite improvements in the treatment of these diseases, there are still widespread worries about how to find a long-lasting remedy. Several neurological diseases can be successfully treated with natural substances. As a result, current research has been concentrated on finding effective neuroprotective drugs with improved efficacy and fewer side effects. Naringenin is one potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. Many citrus fruits, tomatoes, bergamots, and other fruits are rich in naringenin, a flavonoid. This phytochemical is linked to a variety of biological functions. Naringenin has attracted a lot of interest for its ability to exhibit neuroprotection through several mechanisms. In the current article, we present evidence from the literature that naringenin reduces neurotoxicity and oxidative stress in brain tissues. Also, the literatures that are currently accessible shows that naringenin reduces neuroinflammation and other neurological anomalies. Additionally, we found several studies that touted naringenin as a promising anti-amyloidogenic, antidepressant, and neurotrophic treatment option. This review's major goal is to reflect on advancements in knowledge of the molecular processes that underlie naringenin's possible neuroprotective effects. Furthermore, this article also provides highlights of Naringenin with respect to its chemistry and pharmacokinetics.

Kurarinone regulates Th17/Treg balance and ameliorates autoimmune uveitis via Rac1 inhibition

INTRODUCTION

Autoimmune uveitis (AU) is a severe intraocular autoimmune disorder with a chronic disease course and a high rate of blindness. Kurarinone (KU), a major component of the traditional Chinese medicine Sophorae Flavescentis Radix, possesses a wide spectrum of activities and has been used to treat several inflammation-related diseases.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate the effects of KU on AU and its modulatory mechanisms.

METHODS

We used an experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU) animal model and characterized the comprehensive immune landscape of KU-treated EAU mice using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq). The retina and lymph nodes were analyzed. The siRNAs and selective inhibitors were used to study the signaling pathway. The effect of KU on peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from uveitis patients was also examined.

RESULTS

We found that KU relieved chorioretinal lesions and immune cell infiltration in EAU model mice. Subsequent single-cell analysis revealed that KU downregulated the EAU-upregulated expression of inflammatory and autoimmune-related genes and suppressed pathways associated with immune cell differentiation, activation, and migration in a cell-specific manner. KU was implicated in restoring T helper 17 (Th17)/regulatory T (Treg) cell balance by alleviating inflammatory injury and elevating the expression of modulatory mediators in Tregs, while simultaneously ameliorating excessive inflammation by Th17 cells. Furthermore, Rac1 and the Id2/Pim1 axis potentiated the pathogenicity of Th17 cells during EAU, which was inhibited by KU treatment, contributing to the amelioration of EAU-induced inflammation and treatment of AU. In addition, KU suppressed inflammatory cytokine production in activated human PBMCs by inhibiting Rac1. Integration of the glucocorticoid-treated transcriptome suggests that KU has immunomodulatory effects on lymphocytes.

CONCLUSION

Our study constructed a high-resolution atlas of the immunoregulatory effects of KU treatment on EAU and identified its potential therapeutic mechanisms, which hold great promise in treating autoimmune disorders.

Eugenol alleviates the symptoms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice by suppressing inflammatory responses

Eugenol is a principal compound in essential clove oil, known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. While recent studies have demonstrated its neuroprotective effects on central nervous system (CNS) injuries, such as brain ischemia/reperfusion injuries, but its potential impact on multiple sclerosis (MS), an autoimmune disease of the CNS, has not yet been explored. We evaluated the therapeutic effects of eugenol on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an established animal model of MS. EAE was induced in C57BL/6 mice using the myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)35-55 peptide. Clinical symptoms, including paralysis, were monitored daily, and levels of pro-inflammatory mediators were evaluated using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Western blot analyses, and immunohistochemistry. Daily oral administration of eugenol to MOG-induced EAE mice led to a notable decline in the severity of clinical symptoms. Eugenol inhibited EAE-related immune cell infiltration and the production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Histological examinations confirmed its ability to mitigate inflammation and demyelination in the spinal cord post-EAE induction. Eugenol alleviates neuroinflammation in the spinal cords of EAE-induced mice, primarily through anti-inflammatory action.

Eugenol ameliorates uveitis in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through the suppression of key inflammatory genes

Visual impairment associated with uveitis is among the potential complications in multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Bioinformatics analyses have shown that some hub genes are closely associated with the molecular mechanisms underlying uveitis in EAE. This study evaluated whether 4-allyl-2-methoxyphenol (eugenol) can mitigate the pathogenesis of uveitis in EAE through the interruption of key uveitogenic gene expression. Myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein35-55 (MOG) peptide-immunized C57BL/6 mice were injected intraperitoneally with eugenol. The eyeballs and spinal cords of EAE mice with or without eugenol treatment were collected simultaneously and immunohistochemical and molecular biological analyses were conducted. Eugenol treatment significantly ameliorated hindlimb paralysis. Ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) immunohistochemistry showed that the inflammatory response was significantly reduced in the uvea of eugenol-treated EAE mice compared with vehicle-treated controls. Eugenol also significantly reduced the expression of key uveitogenic genes including C1qb and Tyrobp. The suppressive effect of eugenol on inflammation was also observed in the spinal cord, as determined by the suppression of Iba-1-positive microglial cells. Together, these results suggest that the ameliorative effect of eugenol against EAE uveitis is associated with the suppression of key proinflammatory genes, which may represent targets for the treatment of uveitis.

Natural compounds as potential therapeutic candidates for multiple sclerosis: Emerging preclinical evidence

BACKGROUND

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic neurodegenerative disease, with main characteristics of pathological inflammation, neural damage and axonal demyelination. Current mainstream treatments demonstrate more or less side effects, which limit their extensive use.

PURPOSE

Increasing studies indicate that natural compounds benefit multiple sclerosis without remarkable side effects. Given the needs to explore the potential effects of natural compounds of plant origin on multiple sclerosis and their mechanisms, we review publications involving the role of natural compounds in animal models of multiple sclerosis, excluding controlled trials.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

Articles were conducted on PubMed and Web of Science databases using the keywords ``multiple sclerosis'' and ``natural compounds'' published from January 1, 2008, to September 1, 2023.

RESULTS

This review summarized the effects of natural ingredients (flavonoids, terpenoids, polyphenols, alkaloids, glycosides, and others) from three aspects: immune regulation, oxidative stress suppression, and myelin protection and regeneration in multiple sclerosis.

CONCLUSION

Overall, we concluded 80 studies to show the preclinical evidence that natural compounds may attenuate multiple sclerosis progression via suppressing immune attacks and/or promoting myelin protection or endogenous repair processes. It would pave the roads for the future development of effective therapeutic regiments of multiple sclerosis.

Natural products targeting cellular processes common in Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis

The hallmarks of Parkinson's disease (PD) include the loss of dopaminergic neurons and formation of Lewy bodies, whereas multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder with damaged myelin sheaths and axonal loss. Despite their distinct etiologies, mounting evidence in recent years suggests that neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, and infiltration of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) all play crucial roles in both diseases. It is also recognized that therapeutic advances against one neurodegenerative disorder are likely useful in targeting the other. As current drugs in clinical settings exhibit low efficacy and toxic side effects with long-term usages, the use of natural products (NPs) as treatment modalities has attracted growing attention. This mini-review summarizes the applications of natural compounds to targeting diverse cellular processes inherent in PD and MS, with the emphasis placed on their neuroprotective and immune-regulating potentials in cellular and animal models. By reviewing the many similarities between PD and MS and NPs according to their functions, it becomes evident that some NPs studied for one disease are likely repurposable for the other. A review from this perspective can provide insights into the search for and utilization of NPs in treating the similar cellular processes common in major neurodegenerative diseases.

Stem Cells and Natural Agents in the Management of Neurodegenerative Diseases: A New Approach

Neurodegenerative diseases refer to a group of neurological disorders as a consequence of various destructive illnesses, that predominantly impact neurons in the central nervous system, resulting in impairments in certain brain functions. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis, and other neurodegenerative disorders represent a major risk to human health. In order to optimize structural and functional recovery, reconstructive methods integrate many approaches now, to address the complex and multivariate pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders. Stem cells, with their unique property of regeneration, offer new possibilities in regenerative and reconstructive medicine. Concurrently, there is an important role for natural products in controlling many health sufferings and they can delay or even prevent the onset of various diseases. In addition, due to their therapeutic properties, they have been used as neuroprotective agents to treat neurodegenerative disorders. After decades of intensive research, scientists made advances in treating these disorders so far, but current therapies are still not capable of preventing the illnesses from progressing. Therefore, in this review, we focused on a new perspective combining stem cells and natural products as an innovative therapy option in the management of neurodegenerative diseases.

Kurarinone alleviates hemin-induced neuroinflammation and microglia-mediated neurotoxicity by shifting microglial M1/M2 polarization via regulating the IGF1/PI3K/Akt signaling

Cerebral hemorrhage is a fatal disease that causes severe damage to local nerve function. The purpose of this research is to analyze the effect of kurarinone on hemin-induced neuroinflammation and neurotoxicity. In our study, according to the results of bioinformatics analysis, we hypothesized that kurarinone might modulate cerebral hemorrhage advancement via the insulin-like growth factor 1/phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B (IGF1/PI3K/Akt) signaling. Kurarinone promoted M2 microglia polarization, and curbed M1 polarization and inflammation in human microglial cells (HMC3) cells with hemin treatment. Besides, kurarinone upregulated IGF1 expression and activated the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in hemin-treated HMC3 cells. In addition, downregulation of IGF1 or inhibition of the PI3K/Akt signaling weakened the effects of kurarinone on microglia polarization and inflammation in HMC3 cells with hemin treatment. Kurarinone alleviated apoptosis and oxidative damage of SH-SY5Y cells co-cultured with hemin-treated HMC3 cells. In conclusion, kurarinone lessened hemin-induced neuroinflammation and microglia-mediated neurotoxicity by regulating microglial polarization through modulating the IGF1/PI3K/Akt signaling. These results delivered a new prospective therapeutic drug for the treatment of cerebral hemorrhage.

In Vitro and In Silico Characterization of Kurarinone as a Dopamine D1A Receptor Antagonist and D2L and D4 Receptor Agonist

Alterations in the expression and/or activity of brain G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) such as dopamine D₁R, D_2LR, D₃R, and D₄R, vasopressin V_1AR, and serotonin 5-HT_1AR are noted in various neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Since studies have indicated that flavonoids can target brain GPCRs and provide neuroprotection via inhibition of monoamine oxidases (hMAOs), our study explored the functional role of kurarinone, an abundant lavandulated flavonoid in Sophora flavescens, on dopamine receptor subtypes, V_1AR, 5-HT_1AR, and hMAOs. Radioligand binding assays revealed considerable binding of kurarinone on D₁R, D_2LR, and D₄R. Functional GPCR assays unfolded the compound's antagonist behavior on D₁R (IC₅₀ 42.1 ± 0.35 μM) and agonist effect on D_2LR and D₄R (EC₅₀ 22.4 ± 3.46 and 71.3 ± 4.94 μM, respectively). Kurarinone was found to inhibit hMAO isoenzymes in a modest and nonspecific manner. Molecular docking displayed low binding energies during the intermolecular interactions of kurarinone with the key residues of the deep orthosteric binding pocket and the extracellular loops of D₁R, D_2LR, and D₄R, validating substantial binding affinities to these prime targets. With appreciable D_2LR and D₄R agonism and D₁R antagonism, kurarinone might be a potential compound that can alleviate clinical symptoms of Parkinson's disease and other NDDs.

Nobiletin attenuates inflammation via modulating proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokine expressions in an autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model

The aim of this study is to investigate the potential preventive and therapeutic effects of nobiletin by evaluating the expression of cytokines associated with inflammatory reactions in an autoimmune encephalomyelitis mouse model. A total of 60 male C57BL/6 mice aged between 8 and 10 weeks were used. Mice were divided into six groups (n = 10 mice per group): control, EAE, low-prophylaxis, high-prophylaxis, low-treatment and high-treatment. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) was induced by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) and pertussis toxin. Nobiletin was administered in low (25 mg/kg) and high (50 mg/kg) doses, intraperitoneally. The prophylactic and therapeutic effects of nobiletin on brain tissue and spinal cord were evaluated by expression of interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFNγ), IL-6, IL-10 and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) using immunohistochemistry and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Prophylactic and therapeutic use of nobiletin inhibited EAE-induced increase of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 activities to alleviate inflammatory response in brain and spinal cord. Moreover, nobiletin supplement dramatically increased the IL-10, TGF-β and IFNγ expressions in prophylaxis and treatment groups compared with the EAE group in the brain and spinal cord. The results obtained from this study show that prophylactic and therapeutic nobiletin modulates expressions of proinflammatory and antiinflammatory cytokines in brain and spinal cord dose-dependent manner in EAE model. These data demonstrates that nobiletin has a potential to attenuate inflammation in EAE mouse model. These experimental findings need to be supported by clinical studies.

Five-Decade Update on Chemopreventive and Other Pharmacological Potential of Kurarinone: a Natural Flavanone

In the present article we present an update on the role of chemoprevention and other pharmacological activities reported on kurarinone, a natural flavanone (from 1970 to 2021). To the best of our knowledge this is the first and exhaustive review of kurarinone. The literature was obtained from different search engine platforms including PubMed. Kurarinone possesses anticancer potential against cervical, lung (non-small and small), hepatic, esophageal, breast, gastric, cervical, and prostate cancer cells. In vivo anticancer potential of kurarinone has been extensively studied in lungs (non-small and small) using experimental xenograft models. In in vitro anticancer studies, kurarinone showed IC₅₀ in the range of 2–62 µM while in vivo efficacy was studied in the range of 20–500 mg/kg body weight of the experimental organism. The phytochemical showed higher selectivity toward cancer cells in comparison to respective normal cells. kurarinone inhibits cell cycle progression in G2/M and Sub-G1 phase in a cancer-specific context. It induces apoptosis in cancer cells by modulating molecular players involved in apoptosis/anti-apoptotic processes such as NF-κB, caspase 3/8/9/12, Bcl2, Bcl-XL, etc. The phytochemical inhibits metastasis in cancer cells by modulating the protein expression of Vimentin, N-cadherin, E-cadherin, MMP2, MMP3, and MMP9. It produces a cytostatic effect by modulating p21, p27, Cyclin D1, and Cyclin A proteins in cancer cells. Kurarinone possesses stress-mediated anticancer activity and modulates STAT3 and Akt pathways. Besides, the literature showed that kurarinone possesses anti-inflammatory, anti-drug resistance, anti-microbial (fungal, yeast, bacteria, and Coronavirus), channel and transporter modulation, neuroprotection, and estrogenic activities as well as tyrosinase/diacylglycerol acyltransferase/glucosidase/aldose reductase/human carboxylesterases 2 inhibitory potential. Kurarinone also showed therapeutic potential in the clinical study. Further, we also discussed the isolation, bioavailability, metabolism, and toxicity of Kurarinone in experimental models.

The Flavonoid Kurarinone Regulates Macrophage Functions via Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor and Alleviates Intestinal Inflammation in Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Background

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterized with abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits, and dealing with IBS is still a clinical challenge. The pathogenesis of IBS has been reported to be linked to low-grade mucosal inflammation, and macrophages contribute to the pathological process of this disease. Kurarinone (KAR), a flavanoid derived from Sophora flavescens, has been found medically effective in many inflammatory conditions and cancers. KAR was previously reported to inhibit LPS-induced expression of inflammatory cytokines in macrophages, whether and how KAR regulates the functions of macrophage in IBS remains to be elusive.

Methods

We established a TNBS-induced IBS mouse model, in which KAR was administrated, and mucosal cytokine expression was measured by qRT-PCR. Additionally, mouse macrophages were generated in vitro and their responses to LPS were evaluated by flow cytometry and qRT-PCR. AhR^+/+ or AhR^−/- macrophages were transferred into DTx-treated CD11b-DTR transgenic mice to investigate the role of AhR in IBS. We collected colonic biopsies and peripheral blood samples from 64 patients with IBS, and analyzed AhR expression by qRT-PCR.

Results

We found KAR effectively alleviated visceral hypersensitivity and maintained intestinal barrier functions in mice with IBS. KAR inhibited LPS-induced macrophage activation and expression of pro-inflammatory genes, while increased anti-inflammatory gene expression including IL-10 in an AhR-dependent manner. Using macrophage-depleted mice, we found that chimera mice with AhR^−/- macrophages were more susceptible to TNBS-induced IBS and the therapeutic effect of KAR on IBS was significantly impaired in mice with AhR^−/- macrophages. Additionally, we found AhR expression in macrophages of IBS patients was associated with the disease severity.

Conclusion

Our findings provide new evidences that KAR regulates IBS development via macrophage-intrinsic AhR. KAR might show promise as an immunomodulatory therapeutic agent in treating IBS.

Exposure to a mixture of 23 chemicals associated with unconventional oil and gas operations alters immune response to challenge in adult mice

The prevalence of unconventional oil and gas (UOG) operations raises concerns regarding the potential for adverse health outcomes following exposure to water tainted by mixtures of UOG associated chemicals. The potential effects that exposure to complex chemical mixtures has on the immune system have yet to be fully evaluated. In this study, effects on the immune system of adult mice exposed to a mixture of 23 chemicals that have been associated with water near active UOG operations were investigated. Female and male mice were exposed to the mixture via their drinking water for at least 8 weeks. At the end of the exposure, cellularity of primary and secondary immune organs, as well as an immune system function, were assessed using three different models of disease, i.e. house dust mite (HDM)-induced allergic airway disease, influenza A virus infection, and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The results indicated exposures resulted in different impacts on T-cell populations in each disease model. Furthermore, the consequences of exposure differed between female and male mice. Notably, exposure to the chemical mixture significantly increased EAE disease severity in females, but not in male, mice. These findings indicated that direct exposure to this mixture leads to multiple alterations in T-cell subsets and that these alterations differ between sexes. This suggested to us that direct exposure to UOG-associated chemicals may alter the adult immune system, leading to dysregulation in immune cellularity and function.

Kurarinone Attenuates BLM-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis via Inhibiting TGF-β Signaling Pathways

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a refractory interstitial lung disease for which there is no effective treatment. Although the pathogenesis of IPF is not fully understood, TGF-β and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) have been shown to be involved in the fibrotic changes of lung tissues. Kurarinone is a prenylated flavonoid isolated from Sophora Flavescens with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of kurarinone on pulmonary fibrosis. Kurarinone suppressed the TGF-β-induced EMT of lung epithelial cells. To assess the therapeutic effects of kurarinone in bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis, mice were treated with kurarinone daily for 2 weeks starting 7 days after BLM instillation. Oral administration of kurarinone attenuated the fibrotic changes of lung tissues, including accumulation of collagen and improved mechanical pulmonary functions. Mechanistically, kurarinone suppressed phosphorylation of Smad2/3 and AKT induced by TGF-β1 in lung epithelial cells, as well as in lung tissues treated with BLM. Taken together, these results suggest that kurarinone has a therapeutic effect on pulmonary fibrosis via suppressing TGF-β signaling pathways and may be a novel drug candidate for pulmonary fibrosis.

Constipation induced gut microbiota dysbiosis exacerbates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in C57BL/6 mice

Background

Constipation is a common gastrointestinal dysfunction which has a potential impact on people's immune state and their quality of life. Here we investigated the effects of constipation on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS).

Methods

Constipation was induced by loperamide in female C57BL/6 mice. The alternations of gut microbiota, permeability of intestinal barrier and blood–brain barrier, and histopathology of colon were assessed after constipation induction. EAE was induced in the constipation mice. Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was performed from constipation mice into microbiota-depleted mice. Clinical scores, histopathology of inflammation and demyelination, Treg/Th17 and Treg17/Teff17 imbalance both in the peripheral lymphatic organs and central nervous system, cytokines include TGF-β, GM-CSF, IL-10, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, IL-22, and IL-23 in serum were assessed in different groups.

Results

Compared with the vehicle group, the constipation mice showed gut microbiota dysbiosis, colon inflammation and injury, and increased permeability of intestinal barrier and blood–brain barrier. We found that the clinical and pathological scores of the constipation EAE mice were severer than that of the EAE mice. Compared with the EAE mice, the constipation EAE mice showed reduced percentage of Treg and Treg17 cells, increased percentage of Th17 and Teff17 cells, and decreased ratio of Treg/Th17 and Treg17/Teff17 in the spleen, inguinal lymph nodes, brain, and spinal cord. Moreover, the serum levels of TGF-β, IL-10, and IL-21 were decreased while the GM-CSF, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-22, and IL-23 were increased in the constipation EAE mice. In addition, these pathological processes could be transferred via their gut microbiota.

Conclusions

Our results verified that constipation induced gut microbiota dysbiosis exacerbated EAE via aggravating Treg/Th17 and Treg17/Teff17 imbalance and cytokines disturbance in C57BL/6 mice.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12967-021-02995-z.

Role of Plant-Derived Natural Compounds in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis: A Review of the Treatment Potential and Development Strategy

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system that is mainly mediated by pathological T-cells. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a well-known animal model of MS that is used to study the underlying mechanism and offers a theoretical basis for developing a novel therapy for MS. Good therapeutic effects have been observed after the administration of natural compounds and their derivatives as treatments for EAE. However, there has been a severe lag in the research and development of drug mechanisms related to MS. This review examines natural products that have the potential to effectively treat MS. The relevant data were consulted in order to elucidate the regulated mechanisms acting upon EAE by the flavonoids, glycosides, and triterpenoids derived from natural products. In addition, novel technologies such as network pharmacology, molecular docking, and high-throughput screening have been gradually applied in natural product development. The information provided herein can help improve targeting and timeliness for determining the specific mechanisms involved in natural medicine treatment and lay a foundation for further study.

Kurarinone Attenuates Collagen-Induced Arthritis in Mice by Inhibiting Th1/Th17 Cell Responses and Oxidative Stress

Kurarinone is a flavanone, extracted from Sophora flavescens Aiton, with multiple biological effects. Here, we determine the therapeutic potential of kurarinone and elucidate the interplay between kurarinone and the autoimmune disease rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Arthritis was recapitulated by induction of bovine collagen II (CII) in DBA/1 mice as a collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model. After the establishment of the CIA, kurarinone was given orally from day 21 to 42 (100 mg/kg/day) followed by determination of the severity based on a symptom scoring scale and with histopathology. Levels of cytokines, anti-CII antibodies, and the proliferation and lineages of T cells from the draining lymph nodes were measured using ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively. The expressional changes, including STAT1, STAT3, Nrf2, KEAP-1, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) changes in the paw tissues, were evaluated by Western blot assay. Oxidative stress featured with malondiadehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) activities in paw tissues were also evaluated. Results showed that kurarinone treatment reduced arthritis severity of CIA mice, as well as their levels of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ, and IL-17A, in the serum and paw tissues. T cell proliferation was also reduced by kurarinone even under the stimulation of CII and anti-CD3 antibody. In addition, kurarinone reduced STAT1 and STAT3 phosphorylation and the proportions of Th1 and Th17 cells in lymph nodes. Moreover, kurarinone suppressed the production of MDA and H₂O_2. All while promoting enzymatic activities of key antioxidant enzymes, SOD and GSH-Px. In the paw tissues, upregulation of Nrf-2 and HO-1, and downregulation of KEAP-1 were observed. Overall, kurarinone showed an anti-inflammatory effect by inhibiting Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation and an antioxidant effect exerted in part through activating the Nrf-2/KEAP-1 pathway. These beneficial effects in CIA mice contributed to the amelioration of their arthritis, indicating that kurarinone might be an adjunct treatment option for rheumatoid arthritis.

Insights into the mechanisms of Th17 differentiation and the Yin-Yang of Th17 cells in human diseases

Th17 cells are a lineage of CD4⁺ T helper cells with Th17-specific transcription factors RORγt and RoRα. Since its discovery in 2005, research on Th17 has been in rapid progress, and increasing cytokines or transcription factors have been uncovered in the activation and differentiation of Th17 cells. Furthermore, growing evidence proves there are two different subsets of Th17 cells, namely non-pathogenic Th17 (non-pTh17) and pathogenic Th17 (pTh17), both of which play important roles in adaptive immunity, especially in host defenses, autoimmune diseases, and cancer. In this review, we summarize and discuss the mechanisms of Th17 cells differentiation, and their roles in immunity and diseases.

Excessive apoptosis and ROS induced by ethionine affect neural cell viability and differentiation

The central nervous system (CNS) diseases are still a major cause of morbidity and mortality throughout the world, which imposes heavy burden on the development of society. Ethionine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid having similar chemical structure and activity to that of methionine, with which it competes. Previous studies have confirmed that ethionine affects various cellular functions by inhibiting the biosynthesis of proteins, RNA, DNA, and phospholipids, or all of them. The relationship of ethionine with some CNS diseases, including neural tube defects, has been investigated recently. However, the detailed effects of ethionine on the nerve cell bioactivities and the underlying mechanisms have not been fully explored. Herein, we systematically investigated the influences of ethionine on the proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis of neural stem cells (NSCs) and post-mitotic nerve cells. We demonstrated that ethionine inhibited cell viability by disrupting the balance between proliferation and apoptosis, prevented NSCs from differentiating into neurons and astrocytes, and blocked cell progression from G1 to S phase via reducing cyclin D1 function in nerve cells including NSCs, a mouse hippocampal neuron cell line (HT-22), and a mouse brain neuroma cell line (Neuro-2a). We speculated that the inhibitory effect of ethionine on cell viability and differentiation are associated with increased reactive oxygen species production. Our results also supported the concept that ethionine may be an underlying cause of abnormal folate metabolism-induced CNS diseases. Our findings may provide important direction for the application of abnormal folate metabolism-induced CNS diseases in future NSC-based therapies.

An In Vitro Study for Evaluating Permeability and Metabolism of Kurarinone

Kurarinone is a major component found in the dried roots of Sophora flavescens Ait. that participates in vital pharmacological activities. Recombinant CYP450 supersomes and liver microsomes were used to study the metabolic profiles of kurarinone and its inhibitory actions against cytochrome P450 (CYP) and UDP-glucuronosyltransferase (UGT) enzymes. 100 μM of kurarinone strongly inhibited more than 90% of UGT1A1, UGT1A6, CYP1A2, and CYP2C9. CYP1A2 and CYP2D6 played important roles in catalyzing the biotransformation of kurarinone. Moreover, metabolism of kurarinone considerably differs among species, and metabolic characteristics were similar between monkey and human. Kurarinone demonstrated moderate permeability at values of pH 4.0 and 7.4. Our findings offer a clearer idea to understand the pharmacological and toxicological mechanisms of kurarinone.

Pharmacokinetic and bioavailability study of kurarinone in dog plasma by UHPLC-MS/MS

Kurarinone, a natural prenylated flavonone isolated from Sophora flavescens, has been exhibited various activities. This study aimed to establish a simple and sensitive ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method for determining kurarinone in dog plasma. Acetonitrile-mediated precipitation was applied for sample pretreatment. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Waters ACQUITY HSS T3 (100 × 2.1 mm, i. d., 1.8 μm) column with gradient elution using water containing 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile as mobile phase. Quantitation was performed using an electrospray ionization source in negative multiple reaction monitoring mode. The linearity of this method was over the concentration range 0.1-500 ng/mL with the lowest limit of quantification (LLOQ) of 0.1 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-day precision was less than 10.51% and the accuracy ranged from 94.85% to 97.72%, respectively. The extraction recovery of kurarinone in dog plasma was more than 82.37% and no significant matrix effect was observed. The analyte was stable under tested storage conditions. The validated method was further successfully applied to a preclinical pharmacokinetic study of kurarinone in dog after a single intravenous (2 mg/kg) and oral (20 mg/kg) administration. The results revealed that kurarinone was rapidly absorbed into plasma with good bioavailability (38.19%) and low clearance.

On the Neuroprotective Effects of Naringenin: Pharmacological Targets, Signaling Pathways, Molecular Mechanisms, and Clinical Perspective

As a group of progressive, chronic, and disabling disorders, neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) affect millions of people worldwide, and are on the rise. NDs are known as the gradual loss of neurons; however, their pathophysiological mechanisms have not been precisely revealed. Due to the complex pathophysiological mechanisms behind the neurodegeneration, investigating effective and multi-target treatments has remained a clinical challenge. Besides, appropriate neuroprotective agents are still lacking, which raises the need for new therapeutic agents. In recent years, several reports have introduced naturally-derived compounds as promising alternative treatments for NDs. Among natural entities, flavonoids are multi-target alternatives affecting different pathogenesis mechanisms in neurodegeneration. Naringenin is a natural flavonoid possessing neuroprotective activities. Increasing evidence has attained special attention on the variety of therapeutic targets along with complex signaling pathways for naringenin, which suggest its possible therapeutic applications in several NDs. Here, in this review, the neuroprotective effects of naringenin, as well as its related pharmacological targets, signaling pathways, molecular mechanisms, and clinical perspective, are described. Moreover, the need to develop novel naringenin delivery systems is also discussed to solve its widespread pharmacokinetic limitation.

Antitumor effect of kurarinone and underlying mechanism in small cell lung carcinoma cells

Background

Kurarinone, a prenylated flavonone isolated from the roots of Sophora flavescens, is known to be cytotoxic against many human cancer cells but not human small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) yet. Also, the exact molecular mechanism of kurarinone for induction cytotoxicity remains unknown.

Material and methods

We investigated the effects of kurarinone on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and migration in H1688 SCLC cells. Cell viability was determined by the MTT assay. Apoptotic indices such as cell cycle, mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release, caspase activity, and death receptors were evaluated by flow cytometry. Transwell migration and invasion assays were also included.

Results

Our results indicated that kurarinone significantly decreased H1688 cell viability and induced the accumulation of sub-G1 fractions by activating caspase-3, -9, and PARP cleavage accompanied by the elevated release of cytochrome c and mitochondrial dysfunction in H1688 cells. Additionally, kurarinone promoted Fas and TRAIL receptor-1 and -2 expression via the caspase-8/Bid pathway, suggesting that kurarinone triggered apoptosis via the mitochondria-mediated and receptor-mediated apoptotic pathways. We also observed that kurarinone repressed migration and invasion capabilities of SCLC cells by suppressing the expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition-related proteins and matrix metalloproteinases.

Conclusion

Our findings provided evidence that kurarinone can induce apoptosis in SCLC cells via multiple mechanisms and delayed the cell migration and invasion of SCLC cells.

Lactobacillus reuteri Reduces the Severity of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis in Mice by Modulating Gut Microbiota

The gut microbiome plays an important role in immune function and has been implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS). However, how and if the modulation of microbiota can prevent or treat MS remain largely unknown. In this study, we showed that probiotic Lactobacillus reuteri DSM 17938 (L. reuteri) ameliorated the development of murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a widely used animal model of MS, a model which is primarily mediated by T_H17 and T_H1 cells. We discovered that L. reuteri treatment reduced T_H1/T_H17 cells and their associated cytokines IFN-γ/IL-17 in EAE mice. We also showed that the loss of diversity of gut microbiota induced by EAE was largely restored by L. reuteri treatment. Taxonomy-based analysis of gut microbiota showed that three “beneficial” genera Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, and Lactobacillus were negatively correlated with EAE clinical severity, whereas the genera Anaeroplasma, Rikenellaceae, and Clostridium were positively correlated with disease severity. Notably, L. reuteri treatment coordinately altered the relative abundance of these EAE-associated taxa. In conclusion, probiotic L. reuteri changed gut microbiota to modulate immune responses in EAE, making it a novel candidate in future studies to modify the severity of MS.