YAP/TAZ Are Required to Suppress Osteogenic Differentiation of Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells

The Inhibition of γ-Aminobutyric Acid B1 Receptor Regulates Angiogenesis via the Hippo/YAP Signaling Pathway

Promoting the establishment of collateral circulation is essential for chronic lower extremity ischemia. However, no effective therapeutic drugs have yet been developed. Recent studies discovered that in the peripheral arteries, there are γ-aminobutyric acid B1 (GABAB1) receptors expressed in endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells, these receptors may have some effects in regulating vascular functions, but the precise mechanism is not yet clear. This study explores the effect of GABAB1 receptor inhibition on angiogenesis and its regulatory mechanism. The expression of GABAB1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was knocked down using shRNA transfection, and effects on HUVECs' proliferation, migration, and tube formation ability were detected. Western blot and RT-PCR were used to verify the signal pathway. The murine hind limb ischemia model was used to verify the effect of CGP35348, an antagonist of GABAB1R, on the recovery of blood flow perfusion and angiogenesis in ischemic tissues. Cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation ability were improved after GABAB1 receptor knockdown in HUVECs. The phosphorylation of the HIPPO/Yes-associated protein (YAP) pathway decreased, while the effect of promoting angiogenesis increased. After treating the ischemic hindlimbs of mice with GABAB1 receptor antagonists, the blood flow perfusion recovered and the angiogenesis increased. These findings demonstrate the effect of GABAB1 receptor inhibition on the HIPPO/YAP pathway in regulating angiogenesis, suggesting that inhibiting GABAB1 receptor levels might be a novel approach for chronic lower extremity ischemia diseases.

Vascular smooth muscle cells can be circumferentially aligned inside a channel using tunable gelatin microribbons

The gold standard to measure arterial health is vasodilation in response to nitric oxide. Vasodilation is generally measured via pressure myography of arteries isolated from animal models. However, animal arteries can be difficult to obtain and may have limited relevance to human physiology. It is, therefore, critical to engineer human cell-based arterial models capable of contraction. Vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs) must be circumferentially aligned around the vessel lumen to contract the vessel, which is challenging to achieve in a soft blood vessel model. In this study, we used gelatin microribbons to circumferentially align SMCs inside a hydrogel channel. To accomplish this, we created tunable gelatin microribbons of varying stiffnesses and thicknesses and assessed how SMCs aligned along them. We then wrapped soft, thick microribbons around a needle and encapsulated them in a gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel, forming a microribbon-lined channel. Finally, we seeded SMCs inside the channel and showed that they adhered best to fibronectin and circumferentially aligned in response to the microribbons. Together, these data show that tunable gelatin microribbons can be used to circumferentially align SMCs inside a channel. This technique can be used to create a human artery-on-a-chip to assess vasodilation via pressure myography, as well as to align other cell types for 3Din vitromodels.

Vascular smooth muscle cell phenotypic switching in atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a complex pathology process involving intricate interactions among various cells and biological processes. Vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are the predominant cell type in normal arteries, and under atherosclerotic stimuli, VSMCs respond to altered blood flow and microenvironment changes by downregulating contractile markers and switching their phenotype. This review overviews the diverse phenotypes of VSMCs, including the canonical contractile VSMCs, synthetic VSMCs, and phenotypes resembling macrophages, foam cells, myofibroblasts, osteoblasts/chondrocytes, and mesenchymal stem cells. We summarize their presumed protective and pro-atherosclerotic roles in AS development. Additionally, we underscore the molecular mechanisms and regulatory pathways governing VSMC phenotypic switching, encompassing transcriptional regulation, biochemical factors, plaque microenvironment, epigenetics, miRNAs, and the cytoskeleton, emphasizing their significance in AS development. Finally, we outline probable future research directions targeting VSMCs, offering insights into potential therapeutic strategies for AS management.

YAP/TAZ signaling in allantois-derived cells is required for placental vascularization

Normal placental development and angiogenesis are crucial for fetal growth and maternal health during pregnancy. However, molecular regulation of placental angiogenesis has been difficult to study due to a lack of specific genetic tools that isolate the placenta from the embryo and yolk sac. To address this gap in knowledge we recently developed Hoxa13 Cre mice in which Cre is expressed in allantois-derived cells, including placental endothelial and stromal cells. Mice lacking the transcriptional regulators Yes-associated protein (YAP) and PDZ-binding motif (TAZ) in allantois-derived cells exhibit embryonic lethality at midgestation with compromised placental vasculature. snRNA-seq analysis revealed transcriptional changes in placental stromal cells and endothelial cells. YAP/TAZ mutants exhibited significantly reduced placental stromal cells prior to the endothelial architectural change, highlighting the role of these cells in placental vascular growth. These results reveal a central role for YAP/TAZ signaling during placental vascular growth and implicate Hoxa13 -derived placental stromal cells as a critical component of placental vascularization.

The Role of NOTCH Pathway Genes in the Inherited Susceptibility to Aortic Stenosis

The NOTCH-signaling pathway is responsible for intercellular interactions and cell fate commitment. Recently, NOTCH pathway genes were demonstrated to play an important role in aortic valve development, leading to an increased calcified aortic valve disease (CAVD) later in life. Here, we further investigate the association between genetic variants in the NOTCH pathway genes and aortic stenosis in a case-control study of 90 CAVD cases and 4723 controls using target panel sequencing of full-length 20 genes from a NOTCH-related pathway (DVL2, DTX2, MFNG, NUMBL, LFNG, DVL1, DTX4, APH1A, DTX1, APH1B, NOTCH1, ADAM17, DVL3, NCSTN, DTX3L, ILK, RFNG, DTX3, NOTCH4, PSENEN). We identified a common intronic variant in NOTCH1, protecting against CAVD development (rs3812603), as well as several rare and unique new variants in NOTCH-pathway genes (DTX4, NOTCH1, DTX1, DVL2, NOTCH1, DTX3L, DVL3), with a prominent effect of the protein structure and function.

Emerging role of YAP/TAZ in vascular mechanotransduction and disease

Cells have an incredible ability to physically interact with neighboring cells and their environment. They can detect and respond to mechanical forces by converting mechanical stimuli into biochemical signals in a process known as mechanotransduction. This is a key process for the adaption of vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells to altered flow and pressure conditions. Mechanical stimuli, referring to a physical force exerted on cells, are primarily sensed by transmembrane proteins and the actin cytoskeleton, which initiate a cascade of intracellular events, including the activation of signaling pathways, ion channels, and transcriptional regulators. Recent work has highlighted an important role of the transcriptional coactivators YAP/TAZ for mechanotransduction in vascular cells. Interestingly, the activity of YAP/TAZ decreases with age, providing a potential mechanism for the detrimental effects of aging in the vascular wall. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge on the functional role of YAP and TAZ in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells for mechanotransduction in homeostasis and disease. In particular, the review is focused on in vivo observations from conditional knockout (KO) models of YAP/TAZ and the potential implications these studies may have for our understanding of vascular disease development.

Mir-195-5p targets Smad7 regulation of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway to promote osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells

In this study, we sought to investigate the mechanisms of action of miR-195-5p in the osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs), and thereby provide novel insights and a reference for the targeted therapy of arterial media calcification. VSMC differentiation was induced using sodium β-glycerophosphate, and we investigated the effects of transfecting cells with miR-195-5p mimics, vectors overexpressing Smad7, and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway inhibitor (KYA1797K) on VSMC differentiation by determining cell viability and apoptosis, and the mRNA and protein expression of factors associated with osteogenic differentiation and the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. The results revealed that miR-195-5p mimics enhanced the osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs induced by β-glycerophosphate, whereas the overexpression of Smad7 reversed this phenomenon. In addition, KYA1797K was found to promote the effects of Smad7 overexpression. In conclusion, by targeting, Smad7, miR-195-5p promotes the Wnt/β-catenin pathway. and thus the osteogenic differentiation of VSMCs. These findings will provide a reference for elucidating the mechanisms whereby miR-195-5p regulates osteogenic differentiation.

Dynamic Hippo pathway activity underlies mesenchymal differentiation during lung alveolar morphogenesis

Alveologenesis, the final stage in lung development, substantially remodels the distal lung, expanding the alveolar surface area for efficient gas exchange. Secondary crest myofibroblasts (SCMF) exist transiently in the neonatal distal lung and are crucial for alveologenesis. However, the pathways that regulate SCMF function, proliferation and temporal identity remain poorly understood. To address this, we purified SCMFs from reporter mice, performed bulk RNA-seq and found dynamic changes in Hippo-signaling components during alveologenesis. We deleted the Hippo effectors Yap/Taz from Acta2-expressing cells at the onset of alveologenesis, causing a significant arrest in alveolar development. Using single cell RNA-seq, we identified a distinct cluster of cells in mutant lungs with altered expression of marker genes associated with proximal mesenchymal cell types, airway smooth muscle and alveolar duct myofibroblasts. In vitro studies confirmed that Yap/Taz regulates myofibroblast-associated gene signature and contractility. Together, our findings show that Yap/Taz is essential for maintaining functional myofibroblast identity during postnatal alveologenesis.

EID3 inhibits the osteogenic differentiation of periodontal ligament stem cells and mediates the signal transduction of TAZ-EID3-AKT/MTOR/ERK

Exploring the molecular mechanisms of cell behaviors is beneficial for promoting periodontal ligament stem cell (PDLSC)-mediated tissue regeneration. This study intends to explore the regulatory effects of EID3 on cell proliferation, apoptosis, and osteogenic differentiation and to preliminarily explore the regulatory mechanism of EID3. Here, EID3 was overexpressed or knocked down in PDLSCs by recombinant lentivirus. Then, cell proliferation activity was analyzed by colony-forming assay, EdU assay, and cell cycle assay. Cell apoptosis was detected by flow cytometry. The osteo-differentiation potential was analyzed using ALP activity assay, ALP staining, alizarin red staining, and mRNA and protein assay of osteo-differentiation related genes. The results showed that when EID3 was knocked down, the proliferation activity and osteogenic differentiation potential of PDLSCs decreased, while they increased when EID3 was overexpressed. The cell apoptosis rate decreased in PDLSCs with EID3 knockdown but increased in PDLSCs with EID3 overexpression. Moreover, EID3 inhibited the transduction of the AKT/MTOR and ERK signaling pathway. In addition, TAZ negatively regulated the expression of EID3, and the overexpression of EID3 partially reversed the promotive effects of TAZ on the osteogenic differentiation of PDLSCs. Taken together, EID3 inhibits the proliferation and osteogenic differentiation while promoting the apoptosis of PDLSCs. EID3 inhibits the transduction of the AKT/MTOR and ERK signaling pathways and mediates the regulatory effect of TAZ on PDLSC osteogenic differentiation.

Substrate stiffness promotes vascular smooth muscle cell calcification by reducing the levels of nuclear actin monomers

BACKGROUND

Vascular calcification (VC) is a prevalent independent risk factor for adverse cardiovascular events and is associated with diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, and atherosclerosis. However, the mechanisms regulating the osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) are not fully understood.

METHODS

Using hydrogels of tuneable stiffness and lysyl oxidase-mediated stiffening of human saphenous vein ex vivo, we investigated the role of substrate stiffness in the regulation of VSMC calcification.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that increased substrate stiffness enhances VSMC osteogenic differentiation and VSMC calcification. We show that the effects of substrate stiffness are mediated via a reduction in the level of actin monomer within the nucleus. We show that in cells interacting with soft substrate, elevated levels of nuclear actin monomer repress osteogenic differentiation and calcification by repressing YAP-mediated activation of both TEA Domain transcription factor (TEAD) and RUNX Family Transcription factor 2 (RUNX2).

CONCLUSION

This work highlights for the first time the role of nuclear actin in mediating substrate stiffness-dependent VSMC calcification and the dual role of YAP-TEAD and YAP-RUNX2 transcriptional complexes.

Vascular calcification and cellular signaling pathways as potential therapeutic targets

Increased vascular calcification (VC) is observed in patients with cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, diabetes, and chronic kidney disease. VC is divided into three types according to its location: intimal, medial, and valvular. Various cellular signaling pathways are associated with VC, including the Wnt, mitogen-activated protein kinase, phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt, cyclic nucleotide-dependent protein kinase, protein kinase C, calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase II, adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase/mammalian target of rapamycin, Ras homologous GTPase, apoptosis, Notch, and cytokine signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the literature concerning the key cellular signaling pathways associated with VC and their role as potential therapeutic targets. Inhibitors to these pathways represent good candidates for use as potential therapeutic agents for the prevention and treatment of VC.

Vasculature is getting Hip(po): Hippo signaling in vascular development and disease

The Hippo signaling pathway regulates developmental organ growth, regeneration, and cell fate decisions. Although the role of the Hippo pathway, and its transcriptional effectors YAP and TAZ, has been well documented in many cell types and species, only recently have the roles for this pathway come to light in vascular development and disease. Experiments in mice, zebrafish, and in vitro have uncovered roles for the Hippo pathway, YAP, and TAZ in vasculogenesis, angiogenesis, and lymphangiogenesis. In addition, the Hippo pathway has been implicated in vascular cancers and cardiovascular diseases, thus identifying it as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of these conditions. However, despite recent advances, Hippo's role in the vasculature is still underappreciated compared with its role in epithelial tissues. In this review, we appraise our current understanding of the Hippo pathway in blood and lymphatic vessel development and highlight the current knowledge gaps and opportunities for further research.

Itga8-Cre-mediated deletion of YAP and TAZ impairs bladder contractility with minimal inflammation and chondrogenic differentiation

A role of Yes1-associated transcriptional regulator (YAP) and WW domain-containing transcription regulator 1 (TAZ) in vascular and gastrointestinal contractility due to control of myocardin (Myocd) expression, which in turn activates contractile genes, has been demonstrated. Whether this transcriptional hierarchy applies to the urinary bladder is unclear. We found that YAP/TAZ are expressed in human detrusor myocytes and therefore exploited the Itga8-CreERT2 model for the deletion of YAP/TAZ. Recombination occurred in detrusor, and YAP/TAZ transcripts were reduced by >75%. Bladder weights were increased (by ≈22%), but histology demonstrated minimal changes in the detrusor, while arteries in the mucosa were inflamed. Real-time quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) using the detrusor demonstrated reductions of Myocd (-79 ± 18%) and serum response factor (Srf) along with contractile genes. In addition, the cholinergic receptor muscarinic 2 (Chrm2) and Chrm3 were suppressed (-80 ± 23% and -80 ± 10%), whereas minute increases of Il1b and Il6 were seen. Unlike YAP/TAZ-deficient arteries, SRY (sex-determining region Y)-box 9 (Sox9) did not increase, and no chondrogenic differentiation was apparent. Reductions of smooth muscle myosin heavy chain 11 (Myh11), myosin light-chain kinase gene (Mylk), and Chrm3 were seen at the protein level. Beyond restraining the smooth muscle cell (SMC) program of gene expression, YAP/TAZ depletion silenced SMC-specific splicing, including exon 2a of Myocd. Reduced contractile differentiation was associated with weaker contraction in response to myosin phosphatase inhibition (-36%) and muscarinic activation (reduced by 53% at 0.3 µM carbachol). Finally, short-term overexpression of constitutively active YAP in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells increased myocardin (greater than eightfold) along with archetypal target genes, but contractile genes were unaffected or reduced. YAP and TAZ thus regulate myocardin expression in the detrusor, and this is important for SMC differentiation and splicing as well as for contractility.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study addresses the hypothesis that YAP and TAZ have an overarching role in the transcriptional hierarchy in the smooth muscle of the urinary bladder by controlling myocardin expression. Using smooth muscle-specific and inducible deletion of YAP and TAZ in adult mice, we find that YAP and TAZ control myocardin expression, contractile differentiation, smooth muscle-specific splicing, and bladder contractility. These effects are largely independent of inflammation and chondrogenic differentiation.

Vascular smooth muscle-specific YAP/TAZ deletion triggers aneurysm development in mouse aorta

Inadequate adaption to mechanical forces, including blood pressure, contributes to development of arterial aneurysms. Recent studies have pointed to a mechanoprotective role of YAP and TAZ in vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Here, we identified reduced expression of YAP1 in human aortic aneurysms. Vascular SMC-specific knockouts (KOs) of YAP/TAZ were thus generated using the integrin α8-Cre (Itga8-Cre) mouse model (i8-YT-KO). i8-YT-KO mice spontaneously developed aneurysms in the abdominal aorta within 2 weeks of KO induction and in smaller arteries at later times. The vascular specificity of Itga8-Cre circumvented gastrointestinal effects. Aortic aneurysms were characterized by elastin disarray, SMC apoptosis, and accumulation of proteoglycans and immune cell populations. RNA sequencing, proteomics, and myography demonstrated decreased contractile differentiation of SMCs and impaired vascular contractility. This associated with partial loss of myocardin expression, reduced blood pressure, and edema. Mediators in the inflammatory cGAS/STING pathway were increased. A sizeable increase in SOX9, along with several direct target genes, including aggrecan (Acan), contributed to proteoglycan accumulation. This was the earliest detectable change, occurring 3 days after KO induction and before the proinflammatory transition. In conclusion, Itga8-Cre deletion of YAP and TAZ represents a rapid and spontaneous aneurysm model that recapitulates features of human abdominal aortic aneurysms.

Yes-Associated Protein and Transcriptional Coactivator with PDZ-Binding Motif in Cardiovascular Diseases

Yes-associated protein (YAP, also known as YAP1) and its paralogue TAZ (with a PDZ-binding motif) are transcriptional coactivators that switch between the cytoplasm and nucleus and regulate the organ size and tissue homeostasis. This review focuses on the research progress on YAP/TAZ signaling proteins in myocardial infarction, cardiac remodeling, hypertension and coronary heart disease, cardiomyopathy, and aortic disease. Based on preclinical studies on YAP/TAZ signaling proteins in cellular/animal models and clinical patients, the potential roles of YAP/TAZ proteins in some cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are summarized.

Vascular smooth muscle cells in intimal hyperplasia, an update

Arterial occlusive disease is the leading cause of death in Western countries. Core contemporary therapies for this disease include angioplasties, stents, endarterectomies and bypass surgery. However, these treatments suffer from high failure rates due to re-occlusive vascular wall adaptations and restenosis. Restenosis following vascular surgery is largely due to intimal hyperplasia. Intimal hyperplasia develops in response to vessel injury, leading to inflammation, vascular smooth muscle cells dedifferentiation, migration, proliferation and secretion of extra-cellular matrix into the vessel's innermost layer or intima. In this review, we describe the current state of knowledge on the origin and mechanisms underlying the dysregulated proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells in intimal hyperplasia, and we present the new avenues of research targeting VSMC phenotype and proliferation.

The Hippo signalling pathway and its implications in human health and diseases

As an evolutionarily conserved signalling network, the Hippo pathway plays a crucial role in the regulation of numerous biological processes. Thus, substantial efforts have been made to understand the upstream signals that influence the activity of the Hippo pathway, as well as its physiological functions, such as cell proliferation and differentiation, organ growth, embryogenesis, and tissue regeneration/wound healing. However, dysregulation of the Hippo pathway can cause a variety of diseases, including cancer, eye diseases, cardiac diseases, pulmonary diseases, renal diseases, hepatic diseases, and immune dysfunction. Therefore, therapeutic strategies that target dysregulated Hippo components might be promising approaches for the treatment of a wide spectrum of diseases. Here, we review the key components and upstream signals of the Hippo pathway, as well as the critical physiological functions controlled by the Hippo pathway. Additionally, diseases associated with alterations in the Hippo pathway and potential therapies targeting Hippo components will be discussed.

Mechanisms of pulmonary vascular dysfunction in pulmonary hypertension and implications for novel therapies

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a serious disease characterized by various degrees of pulmonary vasoconstriction and progressive fibroproliferative remodeling and inflammation of the pulmonary arterioles that lead to increased pulmonary vascular resistance, right ventricular hypertrophy, and failure. Pulmonary vascular tone is regulated by a balance between vasoconstrictor and vasodilator mediators, and a shift in this balance to vasoconstriction is an important component of PH pathology, Therefore, the mainstay of current pharmacological therapies centers on pulmonary vasodilation methodologies that either enhance vasodilator mechanisms such as the NO-cGMP and prostacyclin-cAMP pathways and/or inhibit vasoconstrictor mechanisms such as the endothelin-1, cytosolic Ca2+, and Rho-kinase pathways. However, in addition to the increased vascular tone, many patients have a "fixed" component in their disease that involves altered biology of various cells in the pulmonary vascular wall, excessive pulmonary artery remodeling, and perivascular fibrosis and inflammation. Pulmonary arterial smooth muscle cell (PASMC) phenotypic switch from a contractile to a synthetic and proliferative phenotype is an important factor in pulmonary artery remodeling. Although current vasodilator therapies also have some antiproliferative effects on PASMCs, they are not universally successful in halting PH progression and increasing survival. Mild acidification and other novel approaches that aim to reverse the resident pulmonary vascular pathology and structural remodeling and restore a contractile PASMC phenotype could ameliorate vascular remodeling and enhance the responsiveness of PH to vasodilator therapies.

New Therapeutics Targeting Arterial Media Calcification: Friend or Foe for Bone Mineralization?

The presence of arterial media calcification, a highly complex and multifactorial disease, puts patients at high risk for developing serious cardiovascular consequences and mortality. Despite the numerous insights into the mechanisms underlying this pathological mineralization process, there is still a lack of effective treatment therapies interfering with the calcification process in the vessel wall. Current anti-calcifying therapeutics may induce detrimental side effects at the level of the bone, as arterial media calcification is regulated in a molecular and cellular similar way as physiological bone mineralization. This especially is a complication in patients with chronic kidney disease and diabetes, who are the prime targets of this pathology, as they already suffer from a disturbed mineral and bone metabolism. This review outlines recent treatment strategies tackling arterial calcification, underlining their potential to influence the bone mineralization process, including targeting vascular cell transdifferentiation, calcification inhibitors and stimulators, vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) death and oxidative stress: are they a friend or foe? Furthermore, this review highlights nutritional additives and a targeted, local approach as alternative strategies to combat arterial media calcification. Paving a way for the development of effective and more precise therapeutic approaches without inducing osseous side effects is crucial for this highly prevalent and mortal disease.

YAP and TAZ in Vascular Smooth Muscle Confer Protection Against Hypertensive Vasculopathy

BACKGROUND

Hypertension remains a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, but the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. We hypothesize that appropriate mechanotransduction and contractile function in vascular smooth muscle cells are crucial to maintain vascular wall integrity. The Hippo pathway effectors YAP (yes-associated protein 1) and TAZ (WW domain containing transcription regulator 1) have been identified as mechanosensitive transcriptional coactivators. However, their role in vascular smooth muscle cell mechanotransduction has not been investigated in vivo.

METHODS

We performed physiological and molecular analyses utilizing an inducible smooth muscle-specific YAP/TAZ knockout mouse model.

RESULTS

Arteries lacking YAP/TAZ have reduced agonist-mediated contraction, decreased myogenic response, and attenuated stretch-induced transcriptional regulation of smooth muscle markers. Moreover, in established hypertension, YAP/TAZ knockout results in severe vascular lesions in small mesenteric arteries characterized by neointimal hyperplasia, elastin degradation, and adventitial thickening.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates a protective role of YAP/TAZ against hypertensive vasculopathy.

Yes-Associated Protein in Atherosclerosis and Related Complications: A Potential Therapeutic Target That Requires Further Exploration

Atherosclerosis and its complications diseases remain leading causes of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, bringing a massive burden on public health worldwide. Atherosclerosis is recognized as chronic inflammation, and involves several highly correlated processes, including lipid metabolism dysfunction, endothelial cell dysfunction, inflammation, oxidative stress, vascular smooth muscle cell activation, platelet activation, thrombosis, altered matrix metabolism, and vascular remodeling. Within the past few decades, accumulating evidence has shown that the Yes-associated protein (YAP), the major effector of the Hippo pathway, can play a crucial role in pathogenesis and development of atherosclerosis. Activation of YAP-related pathways, which are induced by alerting flow pattern and matrix stiffness among others, can regulate processes including vascular endothelial cell dysfunction, monocyte infiltration, and smooth muscle cell migration, which contribute to atherosclerotic lesion formation. Further, YAP potentially modulates atherosclerotic complications such as vascular calcification and intraplaque hemorrhage, which require further investigation. Here, we summarized the relevant literature to outline current findings detailing the relationship between of YAP and atherosclerosis and highlight areas for future research.

Role of Glycosylation in Vascular Calcification

Glycosylation is an important step in post-translational protein modification. Altered glycosylation results in an abnormality that causes diseases such as malignancy and cardiovascular diseases. Recent emerging evidence highlights the importance of glycosylation in vascular calcification. Two major types of glycosylation, N-glycosylation and O-glycosylation, are involved in vascular calcification. Other glycosylation mechanisms, which polymerize the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain onto protein, resulting in proteoglycan (PG), also have an impact on vascular calcification. This paper discusses the role of glycosylation in vascular calcification.