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Holmes MV, Richardson TG, Ference BA, Davies NM, Davey Smith G. Integrating genomics with biomarkers and therapeutic targets to invigorate cardiovascular drug development. Nat Rev Cardiol 2021; 18:435-453. [PMID: 33707768 DOI: 10.1038/s41569-020-00493-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Drug development in cardiovascular disease is stagnating, with lack of efficacy and adverse effects being barriers to innovation. Human genetics can provide compelling evidence of causation through approaches such as Mendelian randomization, with genetic support for causation increasing the probability of a clinical trial succeeding. Mendelian randomization applied to quantitative traits can identify risk factors for disease that are both causal and amenable to therapeutic modification. However, important differences exist between genetic investigations of a biomarker (such as HDL cholesterol) and a drug target aimed at modifying the same biomarker of interest (such as cholesteryl ester transfer protein), with implications for the methodology, interpretation and application of Mendelian randomization to drug development. Differences include the comparative nature of the genetic architecture - that is, biomarkers are typically polygenic, whereas protein drug targets are influenced by either cis-acting or trans-acting genetic variants - and the potential for drug targets to show disease associations that might differ from those of the biomarker that they are intended to modify (target-mediated pleiotropy). In this Review, we compare and contrast the use of Mendelian randomization to evaluate potential drug targets versus quantitative traits. We explain how genetic epidemiological studies can be used to assess the aetiological roles of biomarkers in disease and to prioritize drug targets, including designing their evaluation in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael V Holmes
- Medical Research Council Population Health Research Unit, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Tom G Richardson
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Brian A Ference
- Centre for Naturally Randomised Trials, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Neil M Davies
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
- K.G. Jebsen Center for Genetic Epidemiology, Department of Public Health and Nursing, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - George Davey Smith
- Medical Research Council Integrative Epidemiology Unit, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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Animal models of atherosclerosis. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 816:3-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 296] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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Lin J, Li HX, Xia J, Li XN, Jiang XQ, Zhu SY, Ge J, Li JL. The chemopreventive potential of lycopene against atrazine-induced cardiotoxicity: modulation of ionic homeostasis. Sci Rep 2016; 6:24855. [PMID: 27112537 PMCID: PMC4845055 DOI: 10.1038/srep24855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 04/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/06/2022] Open
Abstract
People who drink water contaminated with atrazine (ATR) over many years can experience problems with their cardiovascular system. Lycopene (LYC) has been shown to exhibit cardiovascular disease preventive effects. However, chemopreventive potential of LYC against ATR-induced cardiotoxicity remains unclear. To determine the effects of ATR and/or LYC on heart, mice were treated with ATR (50 mg/kg or 200 mg/kg) and/or LYC (5 mg/kg) by intragastric administration for 21 days. Histopathological and biochemical analyses, including analysis of ion concentrations (Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+), ATPases (Na+-K+-ATPase, Ca2+-ATPase, Mg2+-ATPase and Ca2+-Mg2+-ATPase) activities and the transcription of their subunits, were performed on heart. The results revealed that ATR led to decreased Creative Kinase (CK) activity and increased histological alterations. Furthermore, a significant change in Na+, K+ and Ca2+ content and the down-regulation of Na+-K+-ATPase and Ca2+-ATPase activities and the mRNA expression of their subunits were observed in ATR-exposed mice. Notably, supplementary LYC significantly protected the heart against ATR-induced damage. In conclusion, ATR induced cardiotoxicity by modulating cardiac ATPase activity and the transcription of its subunits, thereby triggering ionic disturbances. However, supplementary LYC significantly combated ATR-induced cardiotoxicity via the regulation of ATPase activity and subunit transcription. Thus, LYC exhibited a significant chemopreventive potential against ATR-induced cardiotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui-Xin Li
- Division of Avian Infectious Diseases, State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun Xia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Xue-Nan Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiu-Qing Jiang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi-Yong Zhu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Ge
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Jin-Long Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
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Shim J, Al-Mashhadi RH, Sørensen CB, Bentzon JF. Large animal models of atherosclerosis - new tools for persistent problems in cardiovascular medicine. J Pathol 2015; 238:257-66. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Shim
- Department of Clinical Medicine; Aarhus University, and Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital; Denmark
| | - RH Al-Mashhadi
- Department of Clinical Medicine; Aarhus University, and Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital; Denmark
| | - CB Sørensen
- Department of Clinical Medicine; Aarhus University, and Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital; Denmark
| | - JF Bentzon
- Department of Clinical Medicine; Aarhus University, and Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital; Denmark
- Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III; Madrid Spain
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Fu P, Yang L, Sun Y, Ye L, Cao Z, Tang K. Target network differences between western drugs and Chinese herbal ingredients in treating cardiovascular disease. BMC Bioinformatics 2014; 15 Suppl 4:S3. [PMID: 25104437 PMCID: PMC4095000 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2105-15-s4-s3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Western drugs have achieved great successes in CVDs treatment. However, they may lead to some side effects and drug resistance. On the other hand, more and more studies found that Traditional Chinese herbs have efficient therapeutic effects for CVDs, while their therapeutic mechanism is still not very clear. It may be a good view towards molecules, targets and network to decipher whether difference exists between anti-CVD western drugs and Chinese herbal ingredients. Results Anti-CVD western drugs and Chinese herbal ingredients, as well as their targets were thoroughly collected in this work. The similarities and the differences between the herbal ingredients and the western drugs were deeply explored based on three target-based perspectives including biochemical property, regulated pathway and disease network. The biological function of herbal ingredients' targets is more complex than that of the western drugs' targets. The signal transduction and immune system associated signaling pathways, apoptosis associated pathways may be the most important pathway for herbal ingredients, however the western drugs incline to regulate vascular smooth muscle contraction associated pathways. Chinese herbal ingredients prefer to regulate the downstream proteins of apoptosis associated pathway; while the western drugs incline to regulate the upstream proteins of VECC (Vascular Epidermal Cells Contraction) related pathways. Conclusion In summary, the characteristics identified in this study would be valuable for designing new network-based multi-target CVD drugs or vaccine adjuvants.
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Lotfi S, Patel AS, Mattock K, Egginton S, Smith A, Modarai B. Towards a more relevant hind limb model of muscle ischaemia. Atherosclerosis 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2012.10.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Kathiresan S. Will cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibition succeed primarily by lowering low-density lipoprotein cholesterol? Insights from human genetics and clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 60:2049-52. [PMID: 23083775 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2012.08.967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Tietjen I, Hovingh GK, Singaraja RR, Radomski C, Barhdadi A, McEwen J, Chan E, Mattice M, Legendre A, Franchini PL, Dubé MP, Kastelein JJP, Hayden MR. Segregation of LIPG, CETP, and GALNT2 mutations in Caucasian families with extremely high HDL cholesterol. PLoS One 2012; 7:e37437. [PMID: 22952570 PMCID: PMC3428317 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0037437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 04/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
To date, few mutations are described to underlie highly-elevated HDLc levels in families. Here we sequenced the coding regions and adjacent sequence of the LIPG, CETP, and GALNT2 genes in 171 unrelated Dutch Caucasian probands with HDLc≥90th percentile and analyzed segregation of mutations with lipid phenotypes in family members. In these probands, mutations were most frequent in LIPG (12.9%) followed by GALNT2 (2.3%) and CETP (0.6%). A total of 6 of 10 mutations in these three genes were novel (60.0%), and mutations segregated with elevated HDLc in families. Interestingly, the LIPG mutations N396S and R476W, which usually result in elevated HDLc, were unexpectedly found in 6 probands with low HDLc (i.e., ≤10th percentile). However, 5 of these probands also carried mutations in ABCA1, LCAT, or LPL. Finally, no CETP and GALNT2 mutations were found in 136 unrelated probands with low HDLc. Taken together, we show that rare coding and splicing mutations in LIPG, CETP, and GALNT2 are enriched in persons with hyperalphalipoproteinemia and segregate with elevated HDLc in families. Moreover, LIPG mutations do not overcome low HDLc in individuals with ABCA1 and possibly LCAT and LPL mutations, indicating that LIPG affects HDLc levels downstream of these proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - G. Kees Hovingh
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Roshni R. Singaraja
- Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc., Burnaby, Canada
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | | | | | | | - Elden Chan
- Xenon Pharmaceuticals Inc., Burnaby, Canada
| | | | | | | | | | - John J. P. Kastelein
- Department of Vascular Medicine, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michael R. Hayden
- Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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Halim SA, Newby LK, Ohman EM. Biomarkers in cardiovascular clinical trials: past, present, future. Clin Chem 2012; 58:45-53. [PMID: 22205775 DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2011.165787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cardiovascular (CV) clinical trials are instrumental in understanding treatment effects and offer insights into the natural progression of CV disease. Biomarkers are a critical component of patient selection, end point definition, and safety monitoring, and clinical trials provide a platform for the discovery and validation of new biomarkers that may augment the understanding of disease mechanisms, risk stratification, and/or clinical decision-making. CONTENT We review the roles that biomarkers have played in CV clinical trials and roles that CV clinical trials have played and will continue to play in the discovery and validation of biomarkers and their implementation in clinical practice. Large biobanks containing multiple specimen types are increasingly being created from patients enrolled in clinical trials, and such biobanks, when coupled with advances in molecular techniques and bioinformatics, promise to accelerate our understanding of CV disease mechanisms and to help fuel the discovery and development of novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers of risk and treatment response. SUMMARY The past, present, and future of biomarkers and clinical trials have been and will remain intertwined. Biomarkers were once the workhorses of patient selection and end point definition in clinical trials; more recently, clinical trials have been the proving ground for individual biomarkers. Attention to biobanking and the application of modern informatics and molecular techniques to samples collected within clinical trials will usher in the era of stratified and personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharif A Halim
- Division of Cardiology, Duke University Medical Center and the Duke Clinical Research Institute, Durham, NC 27710, USA
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Mercuro G, Bassareo PP, Deidda M, Cadeddu C, Barberini L, Atzori L. Metabolomics: a new era in cardiology? J Cardiovasc Med (Hagerstown) 2012; 12:800-5. [PMID: 21934525 DOI: 10.2459/jcm.0b013e32834a658f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
The metabolome represents the collection of all metabolites in a biological cell, tissue, organ or organism, which are the end-products of cellular processes. Metabolomics is the systematic study of small-molecule metabolite profiles that specific cellular processes leave behind. RNA messenger gene expression data and proteomic analyses do not tell the whole story of what might be happening in a cell. Metabolic profiling, in turn, amplifies changes both in the proteome and the genome, and represents a more accurate approximation to the phenotype of an organism in health and disease. In this article, we have provided a description of metabolomics, in the presence of other, more familiar 'omics' disciplines, such as genomics and proteomics. In addition, we have reviewed the current rationale for metabolomics in cardiology, its basic methodology and the data actually available in human studies in this discipline. The discussed topics highlight the importance of being able to use the metabolomics information in order to understand disease mechanisms from a systems biology perspective as a noninvasive approach to diagnose, grade and treat cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Mercuro
- Department of Cardiovascular and Neurological Sciences, University of Cagliari, Monserrato, Italy.
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Hewing B, Fisher EA. Preclinical mouse models and methods for the discovery of the causes and treatments of atherosclerosis. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2012; 7:207-16. [PMID: 22468952 DOI: 10.1517/17460441.2012.660143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atherosclerosis is the leading cause of death in the Western world. Despite huge advances in understanding its pathophysiological mechanisms, current treatment is mostly based on 'traditional' risk factors. The introduction of statins more than 20 years ago reduced morbidity and mortality of atherosclerosis by 30%, leaving a residual cardiovascular risk. Therefore, efforts continue toward the development of novel therapies that can be added to established treatments. Besides targeting dyslipidemia, recent focus has been put on preventing or resolving inflammatory processes involved in atherosclerosis. AREAS COVERED The article discusses therapeutic and diagnostic targets in atherosclerosis and how they can be discovered and studied in preclinical animal models. The roles of immune cells, specifically macrophages and monocytes, in plaque inflammation are discussed. The article also describes current preclinical models of atherosclerosis, specifically the mouse, study designs (for progression and regression studies), basic and advanced methods of analysis of atherosclerotic lesions, and discusses the challenges of translating the findings to humans. EXPERT OPINION Advances in genomics, proteomics, lipidomics and the development of high-throughput screening techniques help to improve our understanding of atherosclerosis disease mechanisms immensely and facilitate the discovery of new diagnostic and therapeutic targets. Preclinical studies in animals are still indispensable to uncover pathways involved in atherosclerotic disease and to evaluate novel drug targets. The translation of these targets, however, from animal studies to humans remains challenging. There is a strong need for novel biomarkers that can be used to prove the concept of a new target in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernd Hewing
- NYU School of Medicine, Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, NY 10016, USA
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Buxton DB, Antman M, Danthi N, Dilsizian V, Fayad ZA, Garcia MJ, Jaff MR, Klimas M, Libby P, Nahrendorf M, Sinusas AJ, Wickline SA, Wu JC, Bonow RO, Weissleder R. Report of the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute working group on the translation of cardiovascular molecular imaging. Circulation 2011; 123:2157-63. [PMID: 21576680 DOI: 10.1161/circulationaha.110.000943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Denis B Buxton
- Division of Cardiovascular Sciences, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute/National Institutes of Health, 6701 Rockledge Dr, Room 8216, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Shim J, Handberg A, Ostergren C, Falk E, Bentzon JF. Genetic susceptibility of the arterial wall is an important determinant of atherosclerosis in C57BL/6 and FVB/N mouse strains. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2011; 31:1814-20. [PMID: 21571684 DOI: 10.1161/atvbaha.111.229674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE How genetic variations among inbred mouse strains translate into differences in atherosclerosis susceptibility is of significant interest for the development of new therapeutic strategies. The objective of the present study was to examine whether genetically controlled arterial wall properties influence atherosclerosis susceptibility in FVB/N (FVB) and C57BL/6 (B6) apolipoprotein E knockout (apoE(-/-)) mouse strains. METHODS AND RESULTS Common carotid artery segments from B6 apoE(-/-), F1 apoE(-/-), and FVB apoE(-/-) mice were transplanted to hybrid F1 apoE(-/-) mice, which can accept grafts from both parental strains without adaptive immune responses. The mice were fed a high-fat diet, and atherosclerosis was induced in the transplanted artery segments by placement of a perivascular constrictive collar. Artery segments from B6 apoE(-/-) mice developed much larger atherosclerotic lesions than artery segments from FVB or F1 apoE(-/-) mice. No differences in aortic arch atherosclerosis of the recipient mice were observed between groups. CONCLUSIONS Genetically controlled factors acting at the level of the arterial wall are important determinants of atherosclerosis susceptibility in FVB apoE(-/-) and B6 apoE(-/-) mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeong Shim
- Atherosclerosis Research Unit, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Denmark
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Azuaje F, Zheng H, Camargo A, Wang H. Systems-based biological concordance and predictive reproducibility of gene set discovery methods in cardiovascular disease. J Biomed Inform 2011; 44:637-47. [PMID: 21315182 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbi.2011.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2010] [Revised: 01/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The discovery of novel disease biomarkers is a crucial challenge for translational bioinformatics. Demonstration of both their classification power and reproducibility across independent datasets are essential requirements to assess their potential clinical relevance. Small datasets and multiplicity of putative biomarker sets may explain lack of predictive reproducibility. Studies based on pathway-driven discovery approaches have suggested that, despite such discrepancies, the resulting putative biomarkers tend to be implicated in common biological processes. Investigations of this problem have been mainly focused on datasets derived from cancer research. We investigated the predictive and functional concordance of five methods for discovering putative biomarkers in four independently-generated datasets from the cardiovascular disease domain. A diversity of biosignatures was identified by the different methods. However, we found strong biological process concordance between them, especially in the case of methods based on gene set analysis. With a few exceptions, we observed lack of classification reproducibility using independent datasets. Partial overlaps between our putative sets of biomarkers and the primary studies exist. Despite the observed limitations, pathway-driven or gene set analysis can predict potentially novel biomarkers and can jointly point to biomedically-relevant underlying molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Azuaje
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Research, Public Research Centre for Health (CRP-Santé), 120 Route d'Arlon L-1150, Luxembourg.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Genetically-engineered mice with hyperlipidemia are the most widely used atherosclerosis models today, but recent advances in transgenesis open the possibility to create new models in alternative species, such as the rat and pig. It seems relevant at this point in time to review some of the strengths and weaknesses of the mouse. RECENT FINDINGS The histology of lesion development in mouse and man has more similarities than differences, and comparative genetics show that many mechanisms of murine and human atherogenesis are shared. Unfortunately, the most feared complication of human atherosclerosis, that is, plaque rupture and thrombosis, occur extremely rarely in mice. This is a major problem. Most patients today are not treated before symptoms ensue, and at this late stage of the disease, mechanisms identified during plaque development in the mouse may not be very important. SUMMARY Murine atherosclerosis models are highly valuable for identifying atherogenic mechanisms that can be targeted by preventive medicine. However, models with thrombotic complications and large animal models suitable for interventional procedures and imaging would be more supportive for current clinical practice and are highly wanted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Fog Bentzon
- Atherosclerosis Research Unit, Institute of Clinical Medicine and Department of Cardiology, Aarhus University Hospital, Skejby, Aarhus, Denmark.
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Azhar S. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Future Cardiol 2010; 6:657-91. [PMID: 20932114 PMCID: PMC3246744 DOI: 10.2217/fca.10.86] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a constellation of risk factors including insulin resistance, central obesity, dyslipidemia and hypertension that markedly increase the risk of Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD). The peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPAR) isotypes, PPARα, PPARδ/ß and PPARγ are ligand-activated nuclear transcription factors, which modulate the expression of an array of genes that play a central role in regulating glucose, lipid and cholesterol metabolism, where imbalance can lead to obesity, T2DM and CVD. They are also drug targets, and currently, PPARα (fibrates) and PPARγ (thiazolodinediones) agonists are in clinical use for treating dyslipidemia and T2DM, respectively. These metabolic characteristics of the PPARs, coupled with their involvement in metabolic diseases, mean extensive efforts are underway worldwide to develop new and efficacious PPAR-based therapies for the treatment of additional maladies associated with the MetS. This article presents an overview of the functional characteristics of three PPAR isotypes, discusses recent advances in our understanding of the diverse biological actions of PPARs, particularly in the vascular system, and summarizes the developmental status of new single, dual, pan (multiple) and partial PPAR agonists for the clinical management of key components of MetS, T2DM and CVD. It also summarizes the clinical outcomes from various clinical trials aimed at evaluating the atheroprotective actions of currently used fibrates and thiazolodinediones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Azhar
- Geriatric Research, Education & Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, CA, USA.
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Koenig W. Integrating biomarkers: The new frontier? Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2010; 242:117-23. [DOI: 10.3109/00365513.2010.493427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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