Trajectory of Maternal Postpartum Depressive Symptoms Moderates the Bidirectional Associations between Maternal Intrusive Parenting and Infant Fear

Fluctuations in Maternal Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Anger and Children's Depression Risks in Middle Childhood

Research suggests a robust link between the severity of maternal depression and children's depression risks in middle childhood. Variations among depressed mothers in terms of affective dysregulation and frequent mood changes are also observed. However, the understanding of how fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms and negative affect influence children is limited. Guided by life history theory, the current study tested whether the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms, anxiety, and anger contributed to depression risks among school-aged children. The sample included 1,364 families where maternal depressive symptoms, anxiety, and anger were longitudinally assessed when children were in Grades 1, 3, 5, and 6. Children's anxious depression and withdrawn depression behaviors were rated in Grades 1, 3, 4, 5, and 6 by two caregivers. Parallel latent growth curve analyses revealed that, first, fluctuations in maternal anxiety from Grade 1 to 6 were related to an increase in children's withdrawn depression over the same period. Second, mean maternal anger over time was related to higher mean levels of child anxious and withdrawn depression, yet fluctuations in maternal anger were not linked to child outcomes. Findings support life history theory by highlighting the degree of fluctuations in maternal anxiety as a source of environmental unpredictability and reveal different effects of maternal anxiety and anger in the intergenerational transmission of depression, with important theoretical and clinical implications.

The Degree of Fluctuations in Maternal Depressive Symptoms in Early Childhood is Associated with Children's Depression Risk: Initial Evidence and Replication Between Two Independent Samples

Guided by life history theory, the present study examined whether the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms in early childhood was prospectively linked to children's risk for depression. This was the first study to present preliminary evidence on this topic and replicated main findings across two large, independent longitudinal samples. Study 1 included 1,364 families where maternal depressive symptoms were longitudinally assessed at child ages 1, 6, 15, 24, and 36, and 54 months, where child depressed/anxious behaviors at Grade 1 were reported. Study 2 included 1,292 families where maternal depressive symptoms were assessed at child ages 2, 6, 15, and 24 months. At 36 months, child internalizing symptoms and inhibitory control were assessed. In Study 1, findings revealed that the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 54 months was associated with higher child depressed/anxious behaviors at Grade 1, only when mothers had higher but decreasing depressive symptoms. Study 2 revealed that the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 24 months was related to higher child internalizing symptoms at 36 months, for mothers whose depressive symptoms were higher but decreasing, higher and increasing, and lower and decreasing. In addition, the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms over 24 months was related to lower child inhibitory control at 36 months, for mothers who had higher but decreasing depressive symptoms. Findings highlighted the degree of fluctuations in maternal depressive symptoms during early childhood can contribute to environmental unpredictability, which can increase children's depression risks.

Associations between mothers' and fathers' depression and anxiety prior to birth and infant temperament trajectories over the first year of life: Evidence from diagnoses and symptom severity

BACKGROUND

Developmental shifts in infant temperament predict distal outcomes including emerging symptoms of psychopathology in childhood. Thus, it is critical to gain insight into factors that shape these developmental shifts. Although parental depression and anxiety represent strong predictors of infant temperament in cross-sectional research, few studies have examined how these factors influence temperament trajectories across infancy.

METHODS

We used latent growth curve modeling to examine whether mothers' and fathers' anxiety and depression, measured in two ways - as diagnostic status and symptom severity - serve as unique predictors of developmental shifts in infant temperament from 3 to 12 months. Participants included mothers (N = 234) and a subset of fathers (N = 142). Prior to or during pregnancy, both parents were assessed for lifetime diagnoses of depression and anxiety as well as current severity levels. Mothers rated their infants' temperament at 3, 6, and 12 months of age.

RESULTS

Mothers' depression and anxiety primarily predicted initial levels of temperament at 3 months. Controlling for mothers' symptoms, fathers' depression and anxiety largely related to temperament trajectories across infancy. Lifetime diagnoses and symptom severities were associated with distinct patterns.

LIMITATIONS

Infant temperament was assessed using a parent-report measure. Including an observational measure would provide a more comprehensive picture of the infants' functioning.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that mothers' and fathers' mental health are uniquely associated with infant temperament development when measured using diagnostic status and/or symptom severity. Future studies should examine whether these temperament trajectories mediate intergenerational transmission of risk for depression and anxiety.

Infant fearful distress, parent intrusiveness, and adversity in families experiencing homelessness

Infants experiencing homelessness face risk for developing mental health problems in the future. Parents residing in shelters experience adverse events at elevated rates compared to non-homeless individuals, which can impact their infants during a time of rapid development depending on how the parent copes. For some, trauma linked to these events may manifest in an intrusive parenting style that interferes with the child's developing capacity for self-regulation. We utilized a sample of 60 parent-infant dyads recruited while residing in emergency homeless shelters to evaluate associations among parents' history of adversity, intrusive parenting behaviors, and infants' fearful distress. Observed parent intrusiveness during a free play interaction was significantly associated with infant fearfulness observed in a separate behavioral task during which infants viewed a series of masks. Furthermore, there was a moderating effect for parent history of adversity such that the association between parent intrusiveness and infant fearful distress was stronger among parents with more past experiences of adversity.

Multigenerational Homes Buffered Behavioral Problems among Children of Latinx but not White non-Latinx Mothers

Guided by a culture-sensitive attachment framework (Keller, 2016), the purpose of the current study was to examine multigenerational homes as moderators on the associations among maternal depressive symptoms, maternal-child attachment, and child behavioral problems, between White and Latinx women. A subsample (n = 2,366) of The Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) - previously known as the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study - was used with three time points (at child ages 1-, 3-, and 5-years). Mothers reported their depressive symptoms at child age 1, mother-child attachment at child age 3, and child behavioral problems at child age 5. Home structure was assessed through the mothers' responses at child ages 1 and 3. A path model was used to examine the associations among maternal depressive symptoms, mother-child attachment insecurity, and child behavioral problems, with comparisons among four groups: White non-multigenerational homes, White multigenerational homes, Latinx non-multigenerational homes, and Latinx multigenerational homes. Findings revealed that higher mother-child attachment insecurity at age 3 predicted higher internalizing behaviors at age 5, only among children in Latinx, non-multigenerational homes, but not among those in Latinx, multigenerational homes or White homes. This study revealed significant cultural and ethnical differences in household living arrangements and child wellbeing, with significant theoretical contributions to the understanding of cultural phenomena in attachment research and implications towards designing culturally sensitive intervention programs.