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Earl EH, Goyal M, Mishra S, Kannan B, Mishra A, Chowdhury N, Mishra P. EEG based functional connectivity in resting and emotional states may identify major depressive disorder using machine learning. Clin Neurophysiol 2024; 164:130-137. [PMID: 38870669 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2024.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Disrupted brain network connectivity underlies major depressive disorder (MDD). Altered EEG based Functional connectivity (FC) with Emotional stimuli in major depressive disorder (MDD) in addition to resting state FC may help in improving the diagnostic accuracy of machine learning classification models. We explored the potential of EEG-based FC during resting state and emotional processing, for diagnosing MDD using machine learning approach. METHODS EEG was recorded during resting state and while watching emotionally contagious happy and sad videos in 24 drug-naïve MDD patients and 25 healthy controls. FC was quantified using the Phase Lag Index. Three Random Forest classifier models were constructed to classify MDD patients and healthy controls, Model-I incorporating FC features from the resting state and Model-II and Model-III incorporating FC features while watching happy and sad videos respectively. RESULTS Important features distinguishing MDD and healthy controls were from all frequency bands and represent functional connectivity between fronto-temporal, fronto-parietal and fronto occipital regions. The cross-validation accuracies for Model-I, Model-II and Model-III were 92.3%, 94.9% and 89.7% and test accuracies were 60%, 80% and 70% respectively. Incorporating emotionally contagious videos improved the classification accuracies. CONCLUSION Findings support EEG FC patterns during resting state and emotional processing along with machine learning can be used to diagnose MDD. Future research should focus on replicating and validating these results. SIGNIFICANCE EEG FC pattern combined with machine learning may be used for assisting in diagnosing MDD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estelle Havilla Earl
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Manish Goyal
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Shree Mishra
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Balakrishnan Kannan
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Anushree Mishra
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
| | - Nilotpal Chowdhury
- Department of Pathology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Rishikesh, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Priyadarshini Mishra
- Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India.
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Ma W, Zheng Y, Li T, Li Z, Li Y, Wang L. A comprehensive review of deep learning in EEG-based emotion recognition: classifications, trends, and practical implications. PeerJ Comput Sci 2024; 10:e2065. [PMID: 38855206 PMCID: PMC11157589 DOI: 10.7717/peerj-cs.2065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Emotion recognition utilizing EEG signals has emerged as a pivotal component of human-computer interaction. In recent years, with the relentless advancement of deep learning techniques, using deep learning for analyzing EEG signals has assumed a prominent role in emotion recognition. Applying deep learning in the context of EEG-based emotion recognition carries profound practical implications. Although many model approaches and some review articles have scrutinized this domain, they have yet to undergo a comprehensive and precise classification and summarization process. The existing classifications are somewhat coarse, with insufficient attention given to the potential applications within this domain. Therefore, this article systematically classifies recent developments in EEG-based emotion recognition, providing researchers with a lucid understanding of this field's various trajectories and methodologies. Additionally, it elucidates why distinct directions necessitate distinct modeling approaches. In conclusion, this article synthesizes and dissects the practical significance of EEG signals in emotion recognition, emphasizing its promising avenues for future application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weizhi Ma
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Yujia Zheng
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Tianhao Li
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Zhengping Li
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Li
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- School of Information Science and Technology, North China University of Technology, Beijing, China
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Mitiureva D, Sysoeva O, Proshina E, Portnova G, Khayrullina G, Martynova O. Comparative analysis of resting-state EEG functional connectivity in depression and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2024; 342:111828. [PMID: 38833944 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2024.111828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Revised: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 05/19/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) are psychiatric disorders that often co-occur. We aimed to investigate whether their high comorbidity could be traced not only by clinical manifestations, but also at the level of functional brain activity. In this paper, we examined the differences in functional connectivity (FC) at the whole-brain level and within the default mode network (DMN). Resting-state EEG was obtained from 43 controls, 26 OCD patients, and 34 MDD patients. FC was analyzed between 68 cortical sources, and between-group differences in the 4-30 Hz range were assessed via the Network Based Statistic method. The strength of DMN intra-connectivity was compared between groups in the theta, alpha and beta frequency bands. A cluster of 67 connections distinguished the OCD, MDD and control groups. The majority of the connections, 8 of which correlated with depressive symptom severity, were found to be weaker in the clinical groups. Only 3 connections differed between the clinical groups, and one of them correlated with OCD severity. The DMN strength was reduced in the clinical groups in the alpha and beta bands. It can be concluded that the high comorbidity of OCD and MDD can be traced at the level of FC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Mitiureva
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Centre for Cognition & Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Sysoeva
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Sirius Center for Cognitive Sciences, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Proshina
- Centre for Cognition & Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia.
| | - Galina Portnova
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
| | - Guzal Khayrullina
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Centre for Cognition & Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Martynova
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Department of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
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Bailey NW, Fulcher BD, Caldwell B, Hill AT, Fitzgibbon B, van Dijk H, Fitzgerald PB. Uncovering a stability signature of brain dynamics associated with meditation experience using massive time-series feature extraction. Neural Netw 2024; 171:171-185. [PMID: 38091761 DOI: 10.1016/j.neunet.2023.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/29/2024]
Abstract
Previous research has examined resting electroencephalographic (EEG) data to explore brain activity related to meditation. However, previous research has mostly examined power in different frequency bands. The practical objective of this study was to comprehensively test whether other types of time-series analysis methods are better suited to characterize brain activity related to meditation. To achieve this, we compared >7000 time-series features of the EEG signal to comprehensively characterize brain activity differences in meditators, using many measures that are novel in meditation research. Eyes-closed resting-state EEG data from 49 meditators and 46 non-meditators was decomposed into the top eight principal components (PCs). We extracted 7381 time-series features from each PC and each participant and used them to train classification algorithms to identify meditators. Highly differentiating individual features from successful classifiers were analysed in detail. Only the third PC (which had a central-parietal maximum) showed above-chance classification accuracy (67 %, pFDR = 0.007), for which 405 features significantly distinguished meditators (all pFDR < 0.05). Top-performing features indicated that meditators exhibited more consistent statistical properties across shorter subsegments of their EEG time-series (higher stationarity) and displayed an altered distributional shape of values about the mean. By contrast, classifiers trained with traditional band-power measures did not distinguish the groups (pFDR > 0.05). Our novel analysis approach suggests the key signatures of meditators' brain activity are higher temporal stability and a distribution of time-series values suggestive of longer, larger, or more frequent non-outlying voltage deviations from the mean within the third PC of their EEG data. The higher temporal stability observed in this EEG component might underpin the higher attentional stability associated with meditation. The novel time-series properties identified here have considerable potential for future exploration in meditation research and the analysis of neural dynamics more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil W Bailey
- Monarch Research Institute, Monarch Mental Health Group, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Psychology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Central Clinical School, Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Victoria, Australia.
| | - Ben D Fulcher
- School of Physics, University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - Bridget Caldwell
- Monarch Research Institute, Monarch Mental Health Group, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Aron T Hill
- Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, School of Psychology, Deakin University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Bernadette Fitzgibbon
- Monarch Research Institute, Monarch Mental Health Group, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Psychology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia; Central Clinical School, Department of Psychiatry, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hanneke van Dijk
- Research Institute Brainclinics, Brainclinics Foundation, Nijmegen, the Kingdom of the Netherlands; Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, University Maastricht, Maastricht, the Kingdom of the Netherlands
| | - Paul B Fitzgerald
- Monarch Research Institute, Monarch Mental Health Group, Sydney, NSW, Australia; School of Medicine and Psychology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia
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Proshina E, Martynova O, Portnova G, Khayrullina G, Sysoeva O. Long-range temporal correlations in resting state alpha oscillations in major depressive disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Front Neuroinform 2024; 18:1339590. [PMID: 38450096 PMCID: PMC10914983 DOI: 10.3389/fninf.2024.1339590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Mental disorders are a significant concern in contemporary society, with a pressing need to identify biological markers. Long-range temporal correlations (LRTC) of brain rhythms have been widespread in clinical cohort studies, especially in major depressive disorder (MDD). However, research on LRTC in obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is severely limited. Given the high co-occurrence of OCD and MDD, we conducted a comparative LRTC investigation. We assumed that the LRTC patterns will allow us to compare measures of brain cortical balance of excitation and inhibition in OCD and MDD, which will be useful in the area of differential diagnosis. Methods In this study, we used the 64-channel resting state EEG of 29 MDD participants, 26 OCD participants, and a control group of 37 volunteers. Detrended fluctuation analyzes was used to assess LRTC. Results Our results indicate that all scaling exponents of the three subject groups exhibited persistent LRTC of EEG oscillations. There was a tendency for LRTC to be higher in disorders than in controls, but statistically significant differences were found between the OCD and control groups in the entire frontal and left parietal occipital areas, and between the MDD and OCD groups in the middle and right frontal areas. Discussion We believe that these results indicate abnormalities in the inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter systems, predominantly affecting areas related to executive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Proshina
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Martynova
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of RAS, Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
| | - Galina Portnova
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Guzal Khayrullina
- Centre for Cognition and Decision Making, Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience, National Research University Higher School of Economics, Moscow, Russia
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of RAS, Moscow, Russia
| | - Olga Sysoeva
- Laboratory of Human Higher Nervous Activity, Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of RAS, Moscow, Russia
- Sirius Center for Cognitive Sciences, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, Russia
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Kaltsouni E, Schmidt F, Zsido RG, Eriksson A, Sacher J, Sundström-Poromaa I, Sumner RL, Comasco E. Electroencephalography findings in menstrually-related mood disorders: A critical review. Front Neuroendocrinol 2024; 72:101120. [PMID: 38176542 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2023.101120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
The female reproductive years are characterized by fluctuations in ovarian hormones across the menstrual cycle, which have the potential to modulate neurophysiological and behavioral dynamics. Menstrually-related mood disorders (MRMDs) comprise cognitive-affective or somatic symptoms that are thought to be triggered by the rapid fluctuations in ovarian hormones in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. MRMDs include premenstrual syndrome (PMS), premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD), and premenstrual exacerbation (PME) of other psychiatric disorders. Electroencephalography (EEG) non-invasively records in vivo synchronous activity from populations of neurons with high temporal resolution. The present overview sought to systematically review the current state of task-related and resting-state EEG investigations on MRMDs. Preliminary evidence indicates lower alpha asymmetry at rest being associated with MRMDs, while one study points to the effect being luteal-phase specific. Moreover, higher luteal spontaneous frontal brain activity (slow/fast wave ratio as measured by the delta/beta power ratio) has been observed in persons with MRMDs, while sleep architecture results point to potential circadian rhythm disturbances. In this review, we discuss the quality of study designs as well as future perspectives and challenges of supplementing the diagnostic and scientific toolbox for MRMDs with EEG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisavet Kaltsouni
- Department of Womeńs and Childreńs Health, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Felix Schmidt
- Department of Womeńs and Childreńs Health, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden; Centre for Women's Mental Health during the Reproductive Lifespan, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rachel G Zsido
- Cognitive Neuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Clinical Neuroscience Laboratory for Sex Differences in the Brain, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, USA
| | - Allison Eriksson
- Centre for Women's Mental Health during the Reproductive Lifespan, Uppsala University, 751 85 Uppsala, Sweden; Department of Womeńs and Childreńs Health, Uppsala University, Sweden
| | - Julia Sacher
- Cognitive Neuroendocrinology, Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences, Germany; Clinic of Cognitive Neurology, University of Leipzig, Germany
| | | | | | - Erika Comasco
- Department of Womeńs and Childreńs Health, Science for Life Laboratory, Uppsala University, Sweden.
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Yang K, Hu Y, Zeng Y, Tong L, Gao Y, Pei C, Li Z, Yan B. EEG Network Analysis of Depressive Emotion Interference Spatial Cognition Based on a Simulated Robotic Arm Docking Task. Brain Sci 2023; 14:44. [PMID: 38248259 PMCID: PMC10813131 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14010044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 12/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/29/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Depressive emotion (DE) refers to clinically relevant depressive symptoms without meeting the diagnostic criteria for depression. Studies have demonstrated that DE can cause spatial cognition impairment. However, the brain network mechanisms underlying DE interference spatial cognition remain unclear. This study aimed to reveal the differences in brain network connections between DE and healthy control (HC) groups during resting state and a spatial cognition task. The longer operation time of the DE group during spatial cognition task indicated DE interference spatial cognition. In the resting state stage, the DE group had weaker network connections in theta and alpha bands than the HC group had. Specifically, the electrodes in parietal regions were hubs of the differential networks, which are related to spatial attention. Moreover, in docking task stages, the left frontoparietal network connections in delta, beta, and gamma bands were stronger in the DE group than those of the HC group. The enhanced left frontoparietal connections in the DE group may be related to brain resource reorganization to compensate for spatial cognition decline and ensure the completion of spatial cognition tasks. Thus, these findings might provide new insights into the neural mechanisms of depressive emotion interference spatial cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai Yang
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Yidong Hu
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Ying Zeng
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
- Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation of Ministry of Education, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 611730, China
| | - Li Tong
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Yuanlong Gao
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Changfu Pei
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Zhongrui Li
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
| | - Bin Yan
- Henan Province Key Laboratory of Imaging and Intelligent Processing, PLA Strategy Support Force Information Engineering University, Zhengzhou 450001, China; (K.Y.)
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Simmatis L, Russo EE, Geraci J, Harmsen IE, Samuel N. Technical and clinical considerations for electroencephalography-based biomarkers for major depressive disorder. NPJ MENTAL HEALTH RESEARCH 2023; 2:18. [PMID: 38609518 PMCID: PMC10955915 DOI: 10.1038/s44184-023-00038-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent and debilitating psychiatric disease that leads to substantial loss of quality of life. There has been little progress in developing new MDD therapeutics due to a poor understanding of disease heterogeneity and individuals' responses to treatments. Electroencephalography (EEG) is poised to improve this, owing to the ease of large-scale data collection and the advancement of computational methods to address artifacts. This review summarizes the viability of EEG for developing brain-based biomarkers in MDD. We examine the properties of well-established EEG preprocessing pipelines and consider factors leading to the discovery of sensitive and reliable biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Simmatis
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Cove Neurosciences Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Emma E Russo
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Cove Neurosciences Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Joseph Geraci
- Cove Neurosciences Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Irene E Harmsen
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Cove Neurosciences Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nardin Samuel
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
- Cove Neurosciences Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Qi X, Xu W, Li G. Neuroimaging Study of Brain Functional Differences in Generalized Anxiety Disorder and Depressive Disorder. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1282. [PMID: 37759883 PMCID: PMC10526432 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13091282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and depressive disorder (DD) are distinct mental disorders, which are characterized by complex and unique neuroelectrophysiological mechanisms in psychiatric neurosciences. The understanding of the brain functional differences between GAD and DD is crucial for the accurate diagnosis and clinical efficacy evaluation. The aim of this study was to reveal the differences in functional brain imaging between GAD and DD based on multidimensional electroencephalogram (EEG) characteristics. To this end, 10 min resting-state EEG signals were recorded from 38 GAD and 34 DD individuals. Multidimensional EEG features were subsequently extracted, which include power spectrum density (PSD), fuzzy entropy (FE), and phase lag index (PLI). Then, a direct statistical analysis (i.e., ANOVA) and three ensemble learning models (i.e., Random Forest (RF), Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM), eXtreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost)) were used on these EEG features for the differential recognitions. Our results showed that DD has significantly higher PSD values in the alpha1 and beta band, and a higher FE in the beta band, in comparison with GAD, along with the aberrant functional connections in all four bands between GAD and DD. Moreover, machine learning analysis further revealed that the distinct features predominantly occurred in the beta band and functional connections. Here, we show that DD has higher power and more complex brain activity patterns in the beta band and reorganized brain functional network structures in all bands compared to GAD. In sum, these findings move towards the practical identification of brain functional differences between GAD and DD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuchen Qi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310000, China;
- Department of Neurosurgery, Shaoxing People’s Hospital, Shaoxing 312000, China
| | - Wanxiu Xu
- College of Engineering, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China;
| | - Gang Li
- College of Mathematical Medicine, Zhejiang Normal University, Jinhua 321004, China
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