Enzyme-polymeric/inorganic metal oxide/hybrid nanoparticle bio-conjugates in the development of therapeutic and biosensing platforms

An overview of the direct interaction of synthesized silver nanostructures and enzymes

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have drawn a lot of attention from a variety of fields, particularly the biological and biomedical sciences. As a result, it is acknowledged that AgNPs' direct interactions with macromolecules such as DNA, proteins, and enzymes are essential for both therapeutic and nanotoxicological applications. Enzymes as important catalysts may interact with AgNP surfaces in a variety of ways. Therefore, mechanistic investigation into the molecular effects of AgNPs on enzyme conformation and function is necessary for a comprehensive assessment of their interactions. In this overview, we aimed to overview the various strategies for producing AgNPs. We then discussed the enzyme activity inhibition (EAI) mechanism by nanostructured particles, followed by an in-depth survey of the interaction of AgNPs with different enzymes. Furthermore, various parameters influencing the interaction of NPs and enzymes, as well as the antibacterial and anticancer effects of AgNPs in the context of the enzyme inhibitors, were discussed. In summary, useful information regarding the biological safety and possible therapeutic applications of AgNPs-enzyme conjugates may be obtained from this review.

Delineation of the role of G6PD in Alzheimer's disease and potential enhancement through microfluidic and nanoparticle approaches

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative pathologic entity characterized by the abnormal presence of tau and macromolecular Aβ deposition that leads to the degeneration or death of neurons. In addition to that, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) has a multifaceted role in the process of AD development, where it can be used as both a marker and a target. G6PD activity is dysregulated due to its contribution to oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, and neuronal death. In this context, the current review presents a vivid depiction of recent findings on the relationship between AD progression and changes in the expression or activity of G6PD. The efficacy of the proposed G6PD-based therapeutics has been demonstrated in multiple studies using AD mouse models as representative animal model systems for cognitive decline and neurodegeneration associated with this disease. Innovative therapeutic insights are made for the boosting of G6PD activity via novel innovative nanotechnology and microfluidics tools in drug administration technology. Such approaches provide innovative methods of surpassing the blood-brain barrier, targeting step-by-step specific neural pathways, and overcoming biochemical disturbances that accompany AD. Using different nanoparticles loaded with G6DP to target specific organs, e.g., G6DP-loaded liposomes, enhances BBB penetration and brain distribution of G6DP. Many nanoparticles, which are used for different purposes, are briefly discussed in the paper. Such methods to mimic BBB on organs on-chip offer precise disease modeling and drug testing using microfluidic chips, requiring lower sample amounts and producing faster findings compared to conventional techniques. There are other contributions to microfluid in AD that are discussed briefly. However, there are some limitations accompanying microfluidics that need to be worked on to be used for AD. This study aims to bridge the gap in understanding AD with the synergistic use of promising technologies; microfluid and nanotechnology for future advancements.

Advanced nanomedicines and immunotherapeutics to treat respiratory diseases especially COVID-19 induced thrombosis

Immunotherapy and associated immune regulation strategies gained huge attraction in order to be utilized for treatment and prevention of respiratory diseases. Engineering specifically nanomedicines can be used to regulate host immunity in lungs in the case of respiratory diseases including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) infection. COVID-19 causes pulmonary embolisms, thus new therapeutic options are required to target thrombosis, as conventional treatment options are either not effective due to the complexity of the immune-thrombosis pathophysiology. In this review, we discuss regulation of immune response in respiratory diseases especially COVID-19. We further discuss thrombosis and provide an overview of some antithrombotic nanoparticles, which can be used to develop nanomedicine against thrombo-inflammation induced by COVID-19 and other respiratory infectious diseases. We also elaborate the importance of immunomodulatory nanomedicines that can block pro-inflammatory signalling pathways, and thus can be recommended to treat respiratory infectious diseases.

Recent advances in chitosan-based materials; The synthesis, modifications and biomedical applications

The attention to polymer-based biomaterials, for instance, chitosan and its derivatives, as well as the techniques for using them in numerous scientific domains, is continuously rising. Chitosan is a decomposable naturally occurring polymeric material that is mostly obtained from seafood waste. Because of its special ecofriendly, biocompatible, non- toxic nature as well as antimicrobial properties, chitosan-based materials have received a lot of interest in the field of biomedical applications. The reactivity of chitosan is mainly because of the amino and hydroxyl groups in its composition, which makes it further fascinating for various uses, including biosensing, textile finishing, antimicrobial wound dressing, tissue engineering, bioimaging, gene, DNA and drug delivery and as a coating material for medical implants. This study is an overview of the different types of chitosan-based materials which now a days have been fabricated by applying different techniques and modifications that include etherification, esterification, crosslinking, graft copolymerization and o-acetylation etc. for hydroxyl groups' processes and acetylation, quaternization, Schiff's base reaction, and grafting for amino groups' reactions. Furthermore, this overview summarizes the literature from recent years related to the important applications of chitosan-based materials (i.e., thin films, nanocomposites or nanoparticles, sponges and hydrogels) in different biomedical applications.

Organ uptake, toxicity and skin clearance of ruthenium contrast agents monitored in vivo by x-ray fluorescence

Aims: To investigate the distribution and toxicity of ruthenium nanoparticles (Ru NPs) injected intravenously in mice. Methods: We synthesized Ru NPs, followed their biodistribution by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) imaging and evaluated organ toxicity by histopathology and gene expression. Results: Ru NPs accumulated, mainly in liver and spleen, where they were phagocyted by tissue macrophages, giving a transient inflammation and oxidative stress response that declined after 2 weeks. Ru NPs gradually accumulated in the skin, which was confirmed by microscopic examination of skin biopsies. Conclusion: Ru NP toxicity in recipient organs is transient. Particles are at least partially excreted by the skin, supporting a role for the skin as a nanoparticle clearing organ.

Electrochemical aptasensor based on the engineered core-shell MOF nanostructures for the detection of tumor antigens

It is essential to develop ultrasensitive biosensors for cancer detection and treatment monitoring. In the development of sensing platforms, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have received considerable attention as potential porous crystalline nanostructures. Core-shell MOF nanoparticles (NPs) have shown different diversities, complexities, and biological functionalities, as well as significant electrochemical (EC) properties and potential bio-affinity to aptamers. As a result, the developed core-shell MOF-based aptasensors serve as highly sensitive platforms for sensing cancer biomarkers with an extremely low limit of detection (LOD). This paper aimed to provide an overview of different strategies for improving selectivity, sensitivity, and signal strength of MOF nanostructures. Then, aptamers and aptamers-modified core-shell MOFs were reviewed to address their functionalization and application in biosensing platforms. Additionally, the application of core-shell MOF-assisted EC aptasensors for detection of several tumor antigens such as prostate-specific antigen (PSA), carbohydrate antigen 15-3 (CA15-3), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER2), cancer antigen 125 (CA-125), cytokeratin 19 fragment (CYFRA21-1), and other tumor markers were discussed. In conclusion, the present article reviews the advancement of potential biosensing platforms toward the detection of specific cancer biomarkers through the development of core-shell MOFs-based EC aptasensors.

Immobilized nanoparticles-mediated enzyme therapy; promising way into clinical development

Enzyme (Enz)-mediated therapy indicated a remarkable effect in the treatment of many human cancers and diseases with an insight into clinical phases. Because of insufficient immobilization (Imb) approach and ineffective carrier, Enz therapeutic exhibits low biological efficacy and bio-physicochemical stability. Although efforts have been made to remove the limitations mentioned in clinical trials, efficient Imb-destabilization and modification of nanoparticles (NPs) remain challenging. NP internalization through insufficient membrane permeability, precise endosomal escape, and endonuclease protection following release are the primary development approaches. In recent years, innovative manipulation of the material for Enz immobilization (EI) fabrication and NP preparation has enabled nanomaterial platforms to improve Enz therapeutic outcomes and provide low-diverse clinical applications. In this review article, we examine recent advances in EI approaches and emerging views and explore the impact of Enz-mediated NPs on clinical therapeutic outcomes with at least diverse effects.

Bioelectrocatalysis for CO2 reduction: recent advances and challenges to develop a sustainable system for CO2 utilization

Activation and turning CO₂ into value added products is a promising orientation to address environmental issues caused by CO₂ emission. Currently, electrocatalysis has a potent well-established role for CO₂ reduction with fast electron transfer rate; but it is challenged by the poor selectivity and low faradic efficiency. On the other side, biocatalysis, including enzymes and microbes, has been also employed for CO₂ conversion to target C_n products with remarkably high selectivity; however, low solubility of CO₂ in the liquid reaction phase seriously affects the catalytic efficiency. Therefore, a new synergistic role in bioelectrocatalysis for CO₂ reduction is emerging thanks to its outstanding selectivity, high faradic efficiency, and desirable valuable C_n products under mild condition that are surveyed in this review. Herein, we comprehensively discuss the results already obtained for the integration craft of enzymatic-electrocatalysis and microbial-electrocatalysis technologies. In addition, the intrinsic nature of the combination is highly dependent on the electron transfer. Thus, both direct electron transfer and mediated electron transfer routes are modeled and concluded. We also explore the biocompatibility and synergistic effects of electrode materials, which emerge in combination with tuned enzymes and microbes to improve catalytic performance. The system by integrating solar energy driven photo-electrochemical technics with bio-catalysis is further discussed. We finally highlight the significant findings and perspectives that have provided strong foundations for the remarkable development of green and sustainable bioelectrocatalysis for CO₂ reduction, and that offer a blueprint for C_n valuable products originate from CO₂ under efficient and mild conditions.

Messenger Nanozyme for Reprogramming the Microenvironment of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Dysregulation of superoxide anion (O₂^-) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) metabolism in the microenvironment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) drives the feedback loops of TNF-α and IL-1β thereby inducing an inflammatory storm between immune cells and joint tissue cells. Here, we combine nanoscale manganese dioxide (MnO₂) with microvesicles derived from macrophage (MMV). The former possesses superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT)-like activities that can modulate this imbalance, and we amplify the enzyme-like activities by using the amorphous hollow mesoporous structure and surface modification. The latter is a natural endogenous component with the parent cell-like inflammatory homing ability and a unique function of transmitting information to surrounding and distant cells (″messenger function″), which helps amorphous hollow MnO₂ (H-MnO₂) nanozymes to cloak in the blood and reach the site of inflammation, where they can not only accumulate in activated macrophages but also pretend to be ″messengers″ that are utilized by fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) and chondrocytes. In addition, we also load dexamethasone sodium phosphate (DSP) for helping the nanozymes work. Messenger nanozyme (MMV-MnO₂@DSP) inherits the natural properties of MMV and mimics the enzymatic activity of SOD and CAT. It accumulates in activated macrophages to restore the metabolism of O₂^- and H₂O₂ while promoting repolarization and inhibits the feedback loops of TNF-α and IL-1β among macrophages, fibroblast-like synoviocytes, and chondrocytes, leading to anti-rheumatoid arthritis effects in vitro and in vivo.

A comparative study on biopharmaceutical function of curcumin and miR-34a by multistimuli-responsive nanoniosome carrier: In-vitro and in-vivo

This research conducted a comparative study on nanoscaled niosomal structures consisting of Tween-80, Tween-60, cholesterol, and dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP). Thin-film hydration technique was used for the preparation and entrapment of curcumin and miRNA in niosomal formulations for enhancing the stability and delivery rate of the agents. Herein, the influence of Tween-80, Tween-60, cholesterol, and DOTAP on the entrapment efficiency (EE%) of curcumin and the physicochemical properties of the carrier are fully discussed. The optimum engineered formulation resulted in a positive charge of +11.23 mV, high EE (100%), smooth surface, spherical shape, small diameter (90 nm), and good stability in physiological buffers. Also, an accelerated cellular uptake, as well as drug release in PBS (pH 7.4, 37°C) after 72 h, were observed. The cytotoxic activity of curcumin (Cur)/miR-34a-loaded nanoparticles was determined by the MTT assay. The results displayed an improved cytotoxic activity of Cur-niosome towards cancer cells compared to free-dispersed Cur. The uptake of Cur-loaded niosome by A280s and A280cp-1 cancer cell lines faced 2.5 folds drop in the concentration compared to its free form. Generally, Cur-niosome exhibits a significant accumulation of superior anti-cancer properties. Likewise, the cytotoxicity of miR-34a-niosome against tumor cells was higher in comparison with its free form. The anti-cancer effects of the gene/drug delivery were investigated in the 4T1 xenografted Balb/C mouse tumor model. According to the in vitro and in vivo results, gene delivery from the modified niosome nanoparticles was distinctly greater than Cur delivery. Therefore, it was concluded that encapsulation of genes in the nano-niosomal delivery system is a promising procedure for the treatment of cancer cells.

Advances in nano-based materials for glioblastoma multiforme diagnosis: A mini-review

The development of nano-based materials for diagnosis enables a more precise prognosis and results. Inorganic, organic, or hybrid nanoparticles using nanomaterials, such as quantum dots, extracellular vesicle systems, and others, with different molecular compositions, have been extensively explored as a better strategy to overcome the blood-brain barrier and target brain tissue and tumors. Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most common and aggressive primary tumor of the central nervous system, with a short, established prognosis. The delay in early detection is considered a key challenge in designing a precise and efficient treatment with the most encouraging prognosis. Therefore, the present mini-review focuses on discussing distinct strategies presented recently in the literature regarding nanostructures’ use, design, and application for GBM diagnosis.

A systematic review on potential microbial carbohydrases: current and future perspectives

Various studies have shown that the microbial proteins are often more stable than belongs to other sources like plant and animal origin. Hence, the interest in microbial enzymes has gained much attention due to many potential applications like bioenergy, biofuel production, biobleaching, bioconversion and so on. Additionally, recent trends revealed that the interest in isolating novel microbes from harsh environments have been the main focus of many scientists for various applications. Basically, industrially important enzymes can be categorized into mainly three groups: carbohydrases, proteases, and lipases. Among those, the enzymes especially carbohydrases involved in production of sugars. Carbohydrases include amylases, xylanases, pectinases, cellulases, chitinases, mannases, laccases, ligninases, lactase, glucanase, and glucose oxidase. Thus, here, an approach has been made to highlight five enzymes namely amylase, cellulase, laccase, pectinase, and xylanase from different sources with special emphasis on their properties, mechanism, applications, production optimization, purification, molecular approaches for its enhanced and stable production, and also biotechnological perspectives of its future development. Also, green and sustainable catalytic conversion strategies using nanoparticles of these enzymes have also been discussed. This review will provide insight into the carbohydrases importance and their usefulness that will help to the researchers working in this field.

Criteria, Challenges, and Opportunities for Acellularized Allogeneic/Xenogeneic Bone Grafts in Bone Repairing

As bone grafts become more commonly needed by patients and as donors become scarcer, acellularized bone grafts (ABGs) are becoming more popular for restorative purposes. While autogeneic grafts are reliable as a gold standard, allogeneic and xenogeneic ABGs have been shown to be of particular interest due to the limited availability of autogeneic resources and reduced patient well-being in long-term surgeries. Because of the complete similarity of their structures with native bone, excellent mechanical properties, high biocompatibility, and similarities of biological behaviors (osteoinductive and osteoconductive) with local bones, successful outcomes of allogeneic and xenogeneic ABGs in both in vitro and in vivo research have raised hopes of repairing patients' bone injuries in clinical applications. However, clinical trials have been delayed due to a lack of standardized protocols pertaining to acellularization, cell seeding, maintenance, and diversity of ABG evaluation criteria. This study sought to uncover these factors by exploring the bone structures, ossification properties of ABGs, sources, benefits, and challenges of acellularization approaches (physical, chemical, and enzymatic), cell loading, and type of cells used and effects of each of the above items on the regenerative technologies. To gain a perspective on the repair and commercialization of products before implementing new research activities, this study describes the differences between ABGs created by various techniques and methods applied to them. With a comprehensive understanding of ABG behavior, future research focused on treating bone defects could provide a better way to combine the treatment approaches needed to treat bone defects.

Atropine-Phosphotungestate Polymeric-Based Metal Oxide Nanoparticles for Potentiometric Detection in Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms

The new research presents highly conductive polymeric membranes with a large surface area to volume ratio of metal oxide nanoparticles that were used to determine atropine sulfate (AT) in commercial dosage forms. In sensing and biosensing applications, the nanomaterials zinc oxide (ZnONPs) and magnesium oxide (MgONPs) were employed as boosting potential electroactive materials. The electroactive atropine phosphotungstate (AT-PT) was created by combining atropine sulfate and phosphotungstic acid (PTA) and mixing it with polymeric polyvinyl chloride (PVC) with the plasticizer o-nitrophenyl octyl ether (o-NPOE). The modified sensors AT-PT-ZnONPs or AT-PT-MgONPs showed excellent selectivity and sensitivity for the measurements of atropine with a linear concentration range of 6.0 × 10⁻⁸ − 1.0 × 10⁻³ and 8.0 × 10⁻⁸ − 1.0 × 10⁻³ mol L⁻¹ with regression equations of E_(mV) = (56 ± 0.5) log [AT] − 294 and E_(mV) = (54 ± 0.5) log [AT] − 422 for AT-PT-NPs or AT-PT-MgONPs sensors, respectively. The AT-PT coated wire sensor, on the other hand, showed a Nernstian response at 4.0 × 10⁻⁶ − 1.0 × 10⁻³ mol L⁻¹ and a regression equation E_(mV) = (52.1 ± 0.2) log [AT] + 198. The methodology-recommended guidelines were used to validate the suggested modified potentiometric systems against various criteria.

Colorimetric Aptasensor Based on Fe₃O₄-Cu2+ Nanozyme with Intrinsic Peroxidase-Like Activity in the Detection of Breast Cancer Exosomes

Because breast cancer cells such as MCF-7, exhibit vital and developmental signs by exosome secretion, diagnosing them in the blood can provide a good index of the presence of breast cancer. However, accurate and inexpensive detection of exosomes in clinical practice faces challenges. Therefore, in the presents study, an aptasensor based on CD63 aptameriron oxide-copper ion nanozymes (Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs) was designed with the ability of the CD63 aptamer to interact with the exosome and the release of the Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs for peroxidase-like activity on the tetramethylbenzidine (TMB). After fabrication of CD63 aptamer-Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs based on hydrothermal method, their physicochemical properties were investigated with the SEM, TEM, DLS, Zeta, XRD and magnetization. To investigate the interaction of CD63 aptamer-Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs with exosomes, the required exosomes were extracted from cultured MCF-7 cells. The performance of CD63 aptamer-Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs on TMB degradation in the presence and absence of exosomes was investigated through UV-vis adsorption and ocular observations based on colour changes on laboratory and real samples. The results show that the absence of exosomes significantly inhibited the peroxidase-like activity of CD63 aptamer-Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs due to the aptamer coating. Under optimal conditions, the designed CD63 aptamer-Fe₃O₄-Cu²⁺-NZs is capable of detecting exosomes in the range of 1.4 × 10⁴-5.6 × 10⁵ particles/μL with a detection limit of 5.91 × 10³ particles/μL. Also, this method showed a satisfactory outcome in detection of cancer cells in real samples. Overall, this colorimetric aptasensor can be used to diagnose breast cancer cells based on a simple and inexpensive approach.

Explaining chemical clues of metal organic framework-nanozyme nano-/micro-motors in targeted treatment of cancers: benchmarks and challenges

Nowadays, nano-/micro-motors are considered as powerful tools in different areas ranging from cleaning all types of contaminants, to development of Targeted drug delivery systems and diagnostic activities. Therefore, the development and application of nano-/micro-motors based on metal-organic frameworks with nanozyme activity (abbreviated as: MOF-NZs) in biomedical activities have received much interest recently. Therefore, after investigating the catalytic properties and applications of MOF-NZs in the treatment of cancer, this study intends to point out their key role in the production of biocompatible nano-/micro-motors. Since reducing the toxicity of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can pave the way for medical activities, this article examines the methods of making biocompatible nanomotors to address the benefits and drawbacks of the required propellants. In the following, an analysis of the amplified directional motion of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors under physiological conditions is presented, which can improve the motor behaviors in the propulsion function, conductivity, targeting, drug release, and possible elimination. Meanwhile, by explaining the use of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancer through the possible synergy of nanomotors with different therapies, it was revealed that MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors can be effective in the treatment of cancer. Ultimately, by analyzing the potential challenges of MOF-NZ nano-/micro-motors in the treatment of cancers, we hope to encourage researchers to develop MOF-NZs-based nanomotors, in addition to opening up new ideas to address ongoing problems.

InSiNet: a deep convolutional approach to skin cancer detection and segmentation

Cancer is among the common causes of death around the world. Skin cancer is one of the most lethal types of cancer. Early diagnosis and treatment are vital in skin cancer. In addition to traditional methods, method such as deep learning is frequently used to diagnose and classify the disease. Expert experience plays a major role in diagnosing skin cancer. Therefore, for more reliable results in the diagnosis of skin lesions, deep learning algorithms can help in the correct diagnosis. In this study, we propose InSiNet, a deep learning-based convolutional neural network to detect benign and malignant lesions. The performance of the method is tested on International Skin Imaging Collaboration HAM10000 images (ISIC 2018), ISIC 2019, and ISIC 2020, under the same conditions. The computation time and accuracy comparison analysis was performed between the proposed algorithm and other machine learning techniques (GoogleNet, DenseNet-201, ResNet152V2, EfficientNetB0, RBF-support vector machine, logistic regression, and random forest). The results show that the developed InSiNet architecture outperforms the other methods achieving an accuracy of 94.59%, 91.89%, and 90.54% in ISIC 2018, 2019, and 2020 datasets, respectively. Since the deep learning algorithms eliminate the human factor during diagnosis, they can give reliable results in addition to traditional methods.