Macrocognition in Submarine Command and Control: A Comparison of three Simulated Operational Scenarios

State of science: models and methods for understanding and enhancing teams and teamwork in complex sociotechnical systems

This state of the science review brings together the disparate literature of effective strategies for enhancing and accelerating team performance. The review evaluates and synthesises models and proposes recommended avenues for future research. The two major models of the Input-Mediator-Output-Input (IMOI) framework and the Big Five dimensions of teamwork were reviewed and both will need significant development for application to future teams comprising non-human agents. Research suggests that a multi-method approach is appropriate for team measurements, such as the integration of methods from self-report, observer ratings, event-based measurement and automated recordings. Simulations are recommended as the most effective team-based training interventions. The impact of new technology and autonomous agents is discussed with respect to the changing nature of teamwork. In particular, whether existing teamwork models and measures are suitable to support the design, operation and evaluation of human-nonhuman teams of the future. Practitioner summary: This review recommends a multi-method approach to the measurement and evaluation of teamwork. Team models will need to be adapted to describe interaction with non-human agents, which is what the future is most likely to hold. The most effective team training interventions use simulation-based approaches.

Better together? Investigating new control room configurations and reduced crew size in submarine command and control

The separation of the sound and control rooms in Royal Navy submarines seems to be artefactually reducing the effectiveness of information transition and the overall productivity of the team. A proposed integrated sound and control room was tested in three scenarios: Return to Periscope Depth (RTPD), Inshore Operations (INSO) and Dived Tracking (DT). The activities and communications of a team of serving submariners were recorded in a control room, in a single case study design, comparing co-location and reduced crewing with a baseline of the separate sound and control room configurations that is representative of current submarines. The Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method was used to examine changes in social, information and task networks. In general terms, the co-location of the submariner team led to more efficient communication and completion of tasks. Reducing the crew was more challenging in the higher demand scenarios. Practitioner Summary: There are constraints acting on control rooms, both in terms of physical space and crew size. This study compared conventional control room with co-location and reduced crew in turn. Teamwork improved in the collocated control room but the reduced crew struggled most under conditions of high demand. Abbreviations: DT: dived tracking; EAST: event analysis for systemic teamwork; H: high; INSO: inshore operations; L: low; OOW: office of the watch; OpsO: operations officer; Peri: periscope operator; RTPD: return to periscope depth; RN: royal navy; SoC: sonar controller; SoP: sonar operator; TMA: time-motion analyst.

The effects of team co-location and reduced crewing on team communication characteristics

The manner in which control rooms are configured can impact the flow of information between command teams. Previous research revealed bottlenecks of communications between the Sonar Controller (SOC) and the Operations Officer (OPSO) in submarine control rooms. One way to relieve such bottlenecks is to co-locate operators reliant on one another for task relevant information. The aim of the current studies was to use multiple command teams to empirically examine a novel submarine control room configuration and a reduced crew size in comparison to a baseline of contemporary operations to see if such bottlenecks could be removed. Ten teams performed high and low demand Dived Tracking (DT) scenarios in a simulated submarine control room. Activities and communications of the teams were recorded and quantified using the Event Analysis of Systemic Teamwork (EAST) method affording statistical comparisons with a baseline condition of contemporary operations. The findings showed that the co-location of operators relieved the bottleneck of communications between the SOC and the OPSO. Although overall communications increased, this was more balanced across the team and was more adaptive to scenario demand. This was coupled with a significant increase in task completion, even with a reduced crew size, suggesting greater efficiency and productivity. Future research should seek to validate the changes observed with objective measures of task performance.

Who is responsible for automated driving? A macro-level insight into automated driving in the United Kingdom using the Risk Management Framework and Social Network Analysis

To date, vehicle manufacturers have largely been left to their own initiatives when it comes to the design, development and implementation of automated driving features. Whilst this has enabled developments within the field to accelerate at a rapid pace, we are also now beginning to see the negative aspects of automated design (e.g., driver complacency, automation misuse and ethical dilemmas). It is therefore becoming increasingly important to identify systemic aspects that can address some of these Human Factors challenges. This paper applies the principles of the Risk Management Framework to explore the wider systemic issues associated with automated driving in the United Kingdom through the novel application of network metrics. The authors propose a number of recommendations targeted at each level of the Risk Management Framework that seek to shift the power of influence away from vehicle manufacturers and back into the hands of governing bodies.