1
|
Akter J, Smith WJM, Gebrewold M, Kim I, Simpson SL, Bivins A, Ahmed W. Evaluation of colorimetric RT-LAMP for screening of SARS-CoV-2 in untreated wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 907:167964. [PMID: 37865239 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/23/2023]
Abstract
This study compared reverse transcription-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and three reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) assays targeting the N and E genes of the SARS-CoV-2 genome for detecting RNA in untreated wastewater samples. RT-qPCR assays exhibited consistent amplification down to 2 × 102 GC/reaction, with greater analytical sensitivity at 2 × 101 GC/reaction by US CDC N1 and US CDC N2 assays. In contrast, RT-LAMP exhibited lower sensitivity, detecting SARS-CoV-2 only at or above 2 × 103 GC/reaction. For SARS-CoV-2 seeded wastewater samples, the US CDC N1 assay exhibited greater analytical sensitivity than the US CDC N2, E_Sarbeco, and RT-LAMP assays. Out of 30 wastewater samples, RT-qPCR detected endogenous SARS-CoV-2 RNA in 29 samples, while RT-LAMP identified 27 positive samples, with 20 displaying consistent amplifications in all three RT-LAMP technical replicates. Agreement analysis revealed a strong concordance between RT-LAMP and the US CDC N1 and E_Sarbeco RT-qPCR assays (κ = 0.474) but lower agreement with the US CDC N2 RT-qPCR assay (κ = 0.359). Quantification of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in positive samples revealed a strong correlation between the US CDC N1 and E_Sarbeco assays, while the US CDC N1 and US CDC N2 assays exhibited weak correlation. Logistic regression analysis indicated that RT-LAMP results correlated with RNA quantified by the US CDC N1 and E_Sarbeco assays, with 95 % limits of detection of 3.99 and 3.47 log10 GC/15 mL, respectively. In conclusion, despite lower sensitivity compared to RT-qPCR assays, RT-LAMP may offer advantages for wastewater surveillance, such as rapid results (estimated as twice as fast), and simplicity, making it a valuable tool in the shifting landscape of COVID-19 wastewater surveillance. Furthermore, LAMP positive wastewater samples might be prioritized for SARS-CoV-2 sequencing due to reduced analytical sensitivity. These findings support the use of RT-LAMP as a specific and efficient method for screening wastewater samples for SARS-CoV-2, particularly in resource-limited settings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jesmin Akter
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea; Department of Environmental Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT), Republic of Korea; CSIRO Environment, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Wendy J M Smith
- CSIRO Environment, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Metasebia Gebrewold
- CSIRO Environment, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia
| | - Ilho Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Republic of Korea; Department of Environmental Research, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT), Republic of Korea
| | | | - Aaron Bivins
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, United States of America
| | - Warish Ahmed
- CSIRO Environment, Ecosciences Precinct, 41 Boggo Road, Dutton Park, QLD 4102, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Li XP, Wan XY, Xu TT, Huang J, Zhang QL. Development and validation of a TaqMan RT-qPCR for the detection of convert mortality nodavirus (CMNV). J Virol Methods 2018; 262:65-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
3
|
Zhang Q, Shavalier M, Standish I, Glenney GW, Loch TP, Faisal M. Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the detection and quantification of epizootic epitheliotropic disease virus (salmonid herpesvirus-3). J Virol Methods 2018; 264:44-50. [PMID: 30444983 PMCID: PMC7119762 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2018.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A quantitative LAMP method for identification of EEDV has been developed. Analytical sensitivity of the qLAMP is as low as 78 pg extracted DNA from tissue. The method is highly specific for EEDV. The EEDV qLAMP method was evaluated against the qPCR method.
Epizootic Epitheliotropic Disease Virus (EEDV; Salmonid Herpesvirus-3) causes a serious disease hatchery-reared lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush), threatening restoration efforts of this species in North America. The current inability to replicate EEDV in vitro necessitates the search for a reproducible, sensitive, and specific assay that allows for its detection and quantitation in a time- and cost-effective manner. Herein, we describe a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay that was developed for the quantitative detection of EEDV in infected fish tissues. The newly developed LAMP reaction was optimized in the presence of calcein, and the best results were produced using 2 mM MgCl2, 1.8 mM dNTPs and at an incubation temperature of 67.1 °C. This method was highly specific to EEDV, as it showed no cross-reactivity with several fish viruses, including Salmonid Herpesvirus-1, -2, -4, and -5, Infectious Pancreatic Necrosis Virus, Spring Viremia of Carp Virus, Infectious Hematopoietic Necrosis Virus, Golden Shiner Reovirus, Fathead Minnow Nidovirus, and Viral Hemorrhagic Septicemia Virus. The analytical sensitivity of the EEDV-LAMP method was estimated to be as low as 16 copies of plasmid per reaction. When infected fish tissue was used, a positive reaction could be obtained when an infected gill tissue sample that contained 430 viral copies/μg was diluted up to five orders of magnitude. The sensitivity and specificity of the newly developed LAMP assay compared to the SYBR Green qPCR assay were 84.3% and 93.3%, respectively. The quantitative LAMP for EEDV had a correlation coefficient (R2 = 0.980), and did not differ significantly from the SYBR Green quantitative PCR assay (p > 0.05). Given its cost- and time-effectiveness, this quantitative LAMP assay is suitable for screening lake trout populations and for the initial diagnosis of clinical cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingli Zhang
- Function Laboratory for Marine Fisheries Science and Food Production Processes, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, 266071, China; Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Megan Shavalier
- Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Isaac Standish
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Gavin W Glenney
- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Lamar Fish Health Center, Lamar, PA 16848, USA
| | - Thomas P Loch
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA; Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Mohamed Faisal
- Department of Pathobiology and Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA; Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA; Department of Fisheries and Wildlife, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Yang HL, Qiu L, Liu Q, Wan XY, Liu S, Zhu LL, Yang B, Zhang QL, Huang J. A novel method of real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification developed for rapid and quantitative detection of a new genotype (YHV-8) of yellow head virus. Lett Appl Microbiol 2017; 63:103-10. [PMID: 27221155 DOI: 10.1111/lam.12591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 04/08/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED A new genotype of yellow head virus (YHV), designated as YHV-8, was found in farmed shrimp Fenneropenaeus chinensis suffering suspectedly from EMS/AHPNS (early mortality disease/acute hepatopancreatic necrosis disease) in China in 2012. In this study, a one-step, real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (rRT-LAMP) assay was developed for better detection of both genotypes of YHV-1 and YHV-8. A set of six specific primers was successfully designed targeting a conserved region of the YHV genome. The LAMP reaction was optimized to contain 8 mmol l(-1) Mg(2+) and 1·4 mmol l(-1) dNTPs, and to be performed at 58°C for 60 min. The detection sensitivity of the rRT-LAMP method was as low as 7 × 10(0) copies per reaction. The specificity of the method was validated by the absence of any cross-reaction with the RNA samples extracted from other shrimp viruses (Taura syndrome virus, white spot syndrome virus, infectious hypodermal and haematopoietic necrosis virus, hepatopancreatic parvovirus) and specific pathogen-free (SPF) shrimp. The resulting standard curves showed high correlation coefficient values. Furthermore, the test of farm samples showed that YHV was detected in three of 111 Litopenaeus vannamei, six of eight Fenneropenaeus chinensis, five of 19 Macrobrachium rosenbergii and none of the nine Marsupenaeus japonicus. These results suggest that this assay is applicable widely as a new rapid and sensitive detection method in the research of YHV. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY In this study, we designate a new genotype of yellow head virus (YHV) as YHV genotype 8 (YHV-8) which was detected in diseased shrimp in China. A rapid, sensitive and specific rRT-LAMP detecting method for both YHV-8 and YHV-1 has been established. It is anticipated that this novel assay will be instrumental for diagnosis and surveillance of the virulent genotypes of YHV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H-L Yang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - L Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Q Liu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - X-Y Wan
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - S Liu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - L-L Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - B Yang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - Q-L Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| | - J Huang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Laboratory for Marine Fisheries and Aquaculture, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Qingdao, China.,Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Zhang Q, Liu S, Yang H, Zhu L, Wan X, Li X, Huang J. Reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification for rapid and quantitative assay of covert mortality nodavirus in shrimp. J Invertebr Pathol 2015; 150:130-135. [PMID: 26363123 PMCID: PMC7127608 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2015.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2014] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
A disease known as covert mortality disease has become an increasing problem in the shrimp farming industry in recent years in China and several countries of Southeast Asia, leading to serious losses in production. Litopenaeus vannamei (also known as Pacific white shrimp) is affected by this disease that leads to a range of clinical symptoms including hepatopancreas atrophy and necrosis, soft shell, slow growth, and abdominal muscle whitening and necrosis in the acute stage of disease. A new nodavirus, termed covert mortality nodavirus (CMNV), has been shown to be the etiological agent. In this study, we report a sensitive and specific real-time reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for the rapid and quantitative detection of CMNV. The optimal conditions for this newly developed RT-LAMP reaction were found to be 6mM MgCl2 and 1.6mM dNTPs, an incubation temperature of 65°C and a reaction time of 50min. The analytical sensitivity of the RT-LAMP assay was estimated to be 6.3pg total RNA of CMNV-infected shrimp and 27 copies of the target plasmid. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the newly developed assay versus the standard nested reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) assay was 96.4% and 94.4%, respectively. The reaction products were detected by visual inspection after staining with an in-tube DNA fluorescent dye, a measure taken to eliminate the risk of contamination. The quantitative RT-LAMP assay for CMNV showed high correlation coefficient (r2=0.9953) when the initial templates were above 1000 copies, however the correlation coefficient decreased when the initial templates were lower than 1000 copies. Test of viral load in shrimp indicated that the viral loads varied from 1.5×102 to 6.7×106 copies per mg of cephalothorax tissue. Thus, the CMNV RT-LAMP assay is a sensitive and specific new tool for the field detection and quantification of CMNV in the diagnosis and surveillance of covert mortality disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Qingli Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China.
| | - Shuang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China.
| | - Haolin Yang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China.
| | - Luoluo Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China.
| | - Xiaoyuan Wan
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China.
| | - Xiaoping Li
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Jie Huang
- Key Laboratory of Sustainable Development of Marine Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute (YSFRI), Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences (CAFS), Qingdao 266071, China; National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266071, China; Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Norovirus is an important cause of gastroenteritis outbreaks globally and the most prevalent cause of sporadic gastroenteritis in many regions. Rapid and accurate identification of causative viral agents is critical for outbreak investigation, disease surveillance, and management. Because norovirus is not cultivable and has a highly diversified and variable genome, it is difficult to develop diagnostic assays. Detection methods have evolved from electron microscopy to conventional end-point reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), immunoassay, real-time RT-PCR, other molecular technologies, and nanotechnology array-based assays. The status and features of various testing methods are summarized in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoli Pang
- Provincial Laboratory for Public Health, Walter Mackenzie Health Sciences Centre, University of Alberta Hospital, 8440 - 112 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2J2, Canada; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Alberta, 8440-112 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2B7, Canada.
| | - Bonita E Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Alberta, 11405, 87 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 1C9, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Development and evaluation of reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for the detection of the fathead minnow nidovirus. J Virol Methods 2014; 202:39-45. [PMID: 24594288 PMCID: PMC7113640 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Revised: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A RT-LAMP diagnostic method for the fathead minnow nidovirus has been developed. The analytical sensitivity of the method was revealed as low as five copies. The method was 1000 times more sensitive than the RT-PCR technique. The method is highly specific for FHMNV. The method can be completed in 40 min. Quantitative FHMNV-RT-LAMP was developed and evaluated.
Fathead minnow nidovirus (FHMNV) is a serious baitfish-pathogenic virus in North America. Studies to trace the spread of the virus and determine its host range are hampered by the absence of reliable diagnostic assays. In this study, a one-step, reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay was developed that targets a region in the FHMNV spike protein gene. The assay was optimized, and the best results were obtained at 8 mM of Mg2+ with an incubation time of 40 min at 63 °C in the presence of calcein. The analytical sensitivity of the RT-LAMP method was estimated to be as low as 5 viral copies and was 1000-fold more sensitive than the conventional reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) method. The diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of the developed RT-LAMP assay versus the RT-PCR assay was 100% and 95.7%, respectively. A quantitative RT-LAMP of FHMNV with a high correlation coefficient (r2 = 0.9926) was also developed and the result of quantitation of viral copies in tissue samples of infected fish showed that the viral loads of the infected fish tissue samples reached up to 4.7 × 1010 copies per mg. It is anticipated that the developed RT-LAMP and quantitative RT-LAMP methods will be instrumental for diagnosis and surveillance of FHMNV.
Collapse
|
8
|
A novel method of real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification developed for rapid and quantitative detection of human astrovirus. J Virol Methods 2013; 188:126-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.11.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2012] [Revised: 11/25/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
9
|
Gensberger ET, Kostić T. Novel tools for environmental virology. Curr Opin Virol 2012; 3:61-8. [PMID: 23246441 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2012] [Revised: 11/07/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Routine monitoring of relevant environmental viruses is of great importance for public health and quality assessment. Even though cell culture (i.e., viral infectivity assay) is still regarded as the golden standard, use of new strategies based on the molecular techniques significantly increased in the past years. Specific and rapid detection are main advantages of this alternative approach. Furthermore, integration of cell culture or propidium monoazide treatment with nucleic acid amplification allows for the differentiation of infectious particles. Additional recently reported approaches for the detection of viruses include, among others, whole transcriptome amplification and cell culture combined with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Noteworthy is also the fact, that regardless of the selected detection method, sample preparation still remains the major bottleneck.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Eva Theres Gensberger
- AIT Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Bioresources Unit, Konrad-Lorenz Strasse 24, A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | | |
Collapse
|