Simultaneous analysis of Thebaine, 6-MAM and six abused opiates in postmortem fluids and tissues using Zymark® automated solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

Application of microfluidic technologies in forensic analysis

The application of microfluidic technology in forensic medicine has steadily expanded over the last two decades due to the favorable features of low cost, rapidity, high throughput, user-friendliness, contamination-free, and minimum sample and reagent consumption. In this context, bibliometric methods were adopted to visualize the literature information contained in the Science Citation Index Expanded from 1989 to 2022, focusing on the co-occurrence analysis of forensic and microfluidic topics. A deep interpretation of the literature was conducted based on co-occurrence results, in which microfluidic technologies and their applications in forensic medicine, particularly forensic genetics, were elaborated. The purpose of this review is to provide an impartial evaluation of the utilization of microfluidic technology in forensic medicine. Additionally, the challenges and future trends of implementing microfluidic technology in forensic genetics are also addressed.

A Novel Bioanalytical Method for the Determination of Opioids in Blood and Pericardial Fluid

Opioids are the drugs most commonly detected in overdose deaths and the second most consumed worldwide. An analytical methodology has been optimized and fully validated for the determination of codeine, morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, 6-acetylcodeine, oxycodone, oxymorphone and fentanyl in whole blood and pericardial fluid. The internal standards used were codeine-d3, morphine-d3, 6-acetylmorphine-d3 and fentanyl-d5. Before solid-phase extraction, volumes of 250 μL of blood and pericardial fluid were subjected to a protein precipitation (with 750 μL of ice-cold acetonitrile) and a microwave-induced oximation was performed using a solution of 1% aqueous hydroxylamine hydrochloride in phosphate-buffered saline (1:2, v/v). Finally, the dried extracts were further derivatized with a solution of n-methyl-n-(trimethylsilyl) trifluoroacetamide + 5% trimethylchlorosilane under microwave irradiation. The chromatographic analysis was carried out using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry operating in electron impact and selected ion monitoring mode. For all analytes, the method was linear between 5 and 1,000 ng/mL with determination coefficients (r2) >0.99. Depending on the analyte and matrix, the limit of detection varies between 3 and 4 ng/mL. Intra- and intermediate precision (<20%) and bias (±20%) were acceptable for all analytes in both matrices. The stability of the substances in the studied matrices was guaranteed, at least, 24 h in the autosampler, 4 h at room temperature and 30 days after three freeze/thaw cycles. This methodology was applied to real samples from the Laboratory of Chemistry and Forensic Toxicology, Centre Branch, of the National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, Portugal.

Maternal Poppy Seed Tea Ingestion and Ensuing Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome

The incidence of neonatal abstinence syndrome has been rising in the USA. Nonpharmacological treatments resulting in similar withdrawal states in the newborn have also been described. We report an infant with neonatal abstinence syndrome born to a mother with daily poppy seed tea ingestion for the self-treatment of nausea. A sample of poppy seed tea was replicated using the mother's self-reported recipe. The sample was analyzed using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. This recipe produced a result of approximately 7.8 mg of morphine per serving which she reported to have drank 5-6 days per week, for an estimated 7 months during the course of her pregnancy.

Profiling of morphine and codeine in urine after the ingestion of curry containing poppy seed as an evidence for opiates defence in Malaysia

Consumption of curry containing poppy seeds has raised an issue concerning the opiate content in the urine that might exceed the cut-off value (300ng/mL). The main objective of this study was to examine the morphine and codeine contents in the urine of the consumers after partaking poppy seed-enriched curry in. The volunteers were asked to partake: (a) a single meal and their urines were collected within 24h, or (b) Two meals a day for three consecutive days and their urines were collected within 72h. Two different dosages were also tested in this study: (a) low dosage: 1g/100ml curry (containing 138μg of morphine and 66μg of codeine) and (b) high dosage: 5g/100ml curry (containing 690μg of morphine and 330μg of codeine). The subjects were randomised into the groups using the method of stratified randomization with age and gender groups as covariates. A total of 6 subjects was allocated for each group and placebos were used as control. Results showed that all subjects who consumed low dosage of poppy seeds either in single meal or multiple meals experiment were found negative. However, 1 out of 6high dosage subjects was confirmed positive at a period of 3-6h after the consumption of curry in the single meal study. This outlier maybe due to the lack of water consumption after consuming the curry, thus the low volume of urine was collected and the opiate was concentrated in the urine. On the other hand, 5 out of 6high dosage subjects in the multiple meals experiment were found positive. Majority of these subjects were found positive on the second and third day of the experiment after the second curry meal was consumed. The outlier (negative) in this group might be due to the high consumption of water throughout the experiment and the subject's urine volumes and frequency of urine collection were much higher compared to other subjects. From the result of this study, it can be concluded that partaking high dosages of poppy seed in curry could give a positive response (>300ng/ml+uncertainty of measurement) in the urine, and the water consumption after partaking curry has significant influence for the opiate contents in the urine.

High throughput screening of complex biological samples with mass spectrometry – from bulk measurements to single cell analysis

We review the state of the art in HTS using mass spectrometry with minimal sample preparation from complex biological matrices. We focus on industrial and biotechnological applications.

The Pharmacokinetics of Morphine and Codeine in Human Plasma and Urine after Oral Administration of Qiangli Pipa Syrup

Papaveris pericarpium, a natural source of morphine and codeine, is the principal active component in many antitussive traditional Chinese medicines. We herein report the first PK study of papaveris pericarpium in human plasma and urine following oral administration of single (15, 30, 60 mL) and multiple dose (15 mL) of Qiangli Pipa Syrup (MOR 0.1 mg/mL, COD 0.028 mg/mL) by monitoring morphine and codeine using a HPLC-MS/MS method. Their T_max and t_1/2 values are independent of dosages, while the AUC_0-t linearly increased with higher dosages, indicating linear PK characteristics. AUC_0-t increased obviously after multiple doses, indicating possible risk of accumulative toxicity. Urine studies suggested risks of positive opiate drug tests with a cutoff of 300 ng/mL, which lasted 6-14 h at different doses. These results provide important information for clinical safety, efficacy and rational drug use of Qiangli Pipa Syrup and also guide the related judicial expertise of its administration.

Determination of morphine, codeine, and paclitaxel in human serum and plasma by micellar electrokinetic chromatography

A micellar electrokinetic chromatography method is proposed for the determination of morphine, codeine, and paclitaxel at clinical relevant levels in human serum and plasma, which are employed in the treatment of patients with cancer. Optimal conditions for the separation were investigated. A background electrolyte solutions consisting of 20 mM borate buffer adjusted to pH 8.5, sodium dodecyl sulphate 60 mM and 15% methanol, hydrodynamic injection, and 25 kV as separation voltage were used. Detection wavelength was 212 nm for morphine and codeine and 200 nm for paclitaxel. Aspects such as stability of the solutions, linearity, accuracy, precision, and robust and ruggedness were examined in order to validate the proposed method. Detection limits obtained for all the studied compounds ranged between 26 and 52 ng/mL. Before micellar electrokinetic chromatography determination, the samples were purified and enriched by means of an extraction-preconcentration step with a preconditioned C(18) cartridge. This method was applied to the analysis of serum and plasma samples from different cancer patients undergoing treatment with paclitaxel or/and codeine.

An oxycodone conjugate vaccine elicits drug-specific antibodies that reduce oxycodone distribution to brain and hot-plate analgesia

Opioid conjugate vaccines have shown promise in attenuating the behavioral effects of heroin or morphine in animals. The goal of this study was to extend this approach to oxycodone (OXY), a commonly abused prescription opioid. Haptens were generated by adding tetraglycine (Gly)(4) or hemisuccinate (HS) linkers at the 6-position of OXY. Immunization of rats with OXY(Gly)(4) conjugated to the carrier proteins bovine serum albumin (BSA) or keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) produced high-titer antibodies to OXY and its metabolite oxymorphone with substantially lower affinities for other structurally related opioid agonists and antagonists. There was no measurable binding of antibody by the (Gly)(4) linker alone or off-target opioids methadone and buprenorphine. OXY(HS) conjugates were less immunogenic despite achieving protein haptenation ratios comparable to OXY(Gly)(4)-BSA. In rats given a single intravenous dose of OXY, immunization with OXY(Gly)(4)-KLH increased OXY protein binding and retention in serum while decreasing its unbound (free) concentration in plasma and distribution to brain. Vaccine efficacy correlated with serum antibody titers, and it was greatest in rats given the lowest OXY dose (0.05 mg/kg) but was significant even after a larger OXY dose (0.5 mg/kg), equivalent to the high end of the therapeutic range in humans. These effects of OXY(Gly)(4)-KLH on drug disposition were comparable to those of nicotine or cocaine vaccines that are in clinical trials as addiction treatments. Immunization with OXY(Gly)(4)-KLH also reduced OXY analgesia in a thermal nociception test. These data support further study of vaccination with the OXY(Gly)(4)-KLH immunogen as a potential treatment option for OXY abuse or addiction.

Bioanalytical procedures and recent developments in the determination of opiates/opioids in human biological samples

The use and abuse of illegal drugs affects all modern societies, and therefore the assessment of drug exposure is an important task that needs to be accomplished. For this reason, the reliable determination of these drugs and their metabolites in biological specimens is an issue of utmost relevance for both clinical and forensic toxicology laboratories in their fields of expertise, including in utero drug exposure, driving under the influence of drugs and drug use in workplace scenarios. Most of the confirmatory analyses for abused drugs in biological samples are performed by gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric methods, but use of the more recent and sensitive liquid chromatography-(tandem) mass spectrometry technology is increasing dramatically. This article reviews recently published articles that describe procedures for the detection of opiates in the most commonly used human biological matrices, blood and urine, and also in unconventional ones, e.g. oral fluid, hair, and meconium. Special attention will be paid to sample preparation and chromatographic analysis.

Monitoring phospholipids for assessment of matrix effects in a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method for hydrocodone and pseudoephedrine in human plasma

Matrix effects resulting in ion suppression or enhancement have been shown to be a source of variability and inaccuracy in bioanalytical mass spectrometry. Glycerophosphocholines may cause significant matrix ionization effects during quantitative LC/MS/MS analysis and are known to fragment to form characteristic ions (m/z 184) in electrospray mass spectrometry. This ion was used to monitor ion suppression effects in the determination of hydrocodone and pseudoephedrine in human plasma as a means to track and avoid these effects. The m/z 184 ion fragment was detected in both plasma extracts and solutions of phosphatidylcholine. Post-column infusion studies showed that the ion suppression for both drugs and internal standards correlated with the elution of phospholipids. HPLC conditions were adjusted to chromatographically resolve the peaks of interest from the phospholipids. Upon repeated injection, the elution time of the phospholipids decreased while elution of the analyte peaks remained unchanged. This resulted in co-elution and significantly affected peak shape and internal standard response for the analytes. It was decided to use the phospholipid fragment to monitor this matrix effect in validation samples. The resulting method demonstrated intra-day and inter-day precision within 4.5 and 5.6% for hydrocodone and pseudoephedrine, respectively, and accuracy within 8.9 and 8.7% for hydrocodone, and pseudoephedrine, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference in the internal standard response for the determination with and without monitoring the phospholipid fragment ion. We found that monitoring the phospholipid fragment was useful in method development to avoid the matrix effects, and in routine analysis to provide a practical way to ensure the avoidance of matrix effects in each individual sample.

Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in blood

Determination of drugs of abuse in blood is of great importance in clinical and forensic toxicology. This review describes procedures for detection of the following drugs of abuse and their metabolites in whole blood, plasma or serum: Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide, heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, morphine-6-glucuronide, morphine-3-glucuronide, codeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, N-ethyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, cocaethylene, other cocaine metabolites or pyrolysis products (norcocaine, norcocaethylene, norbenzoylecgonine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, ethyl ecgonine, ecgonine, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, anhydroecgonine ethyl ester, anhydroecgonine, noranhydroecgonine, N-hydroxynorcocaine, cocaine N-oxide, anhydroecgonine methyl ester N-oxide). Metabolites and degradation products which are recommended to be monitored for assessment in clinical or forensic toxicology are mentioned. Papers written in English between 2002 and the beginning of 2007 are reviewed. Analytical methods are assessed for their suitability in forensic toxicology, where special requirements have to be met. For many of the analytes sensitive immunological methods for screening are available. Screening and confirmation is mostly done by gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS) or liquid chromatography (LC)-MS(/MS) procedures. Basic information about the biosample assayed, internal standard, workup, GC or LC column and mobile phase, detection mode, and validation data for each procedure is summarized in two tables to facilitate the selection of a method suitable for a specific analytic problem.

The use of CE-electrochemiluminescence with ionic liquid for the determination of bioactive constituents in Chinese traditional medicine

CE / tris(2,2-bipyridyl) ruthenium(II) (Ru(bpy)(3) (2+)) electrochemiluminescence (ECL), CE-ECL, with an ionic liquid (IL) detection system was established for the determination of bioactive constituents in Chinese traditional medicine opium poppy which contain large amounts of coexistent substances. A minimal sample pretreatment which involves a one-step extraction approach avoids both sample loss and environmental pollution. As the nearby hydroxyl groups in some alkaloid such as morphine may react with borate to form complexes and IL, as a high-conductivity additive in running buffer, could cause an enhanced field-amplified effect of electrokinetic injection. Running buffer containing 25 mM borax-8 mM 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate (EMImBF(4))IL (pH 9.18) was used which resulted in significant changes in separation selectivity and obvious enhancement in ECL intensities for those alkaloids with similar structures. Sensitive detection could be achieved when the distance between the Pt working electrode and the outlet of separation capillary was set at 150 microm and the stainless steel cannula was fixed approximately 1 cm away from the outlet of the capillary. Quantitative analysis of four alkaloids was achieved at a detection voltage of 1.2 V and a separation voltage of 15 kV in less than 7 min. Detection limits of thebaine, codeine, morphine, and narcotine were 2.5 x 10(-7), 2.5 x 10(-7), 1 x 10(-9) and 1 x 10(-6) M(S/N = 3), respectively. The method was successfully applied to determine the amounts of opium alkaloids in real poppy samples.

Morphine and its metabolites: Analytical methodologies for its determination

The present article reviews the methods of determination published for morphine and its metabolites covering the period from 1980 until at the first part of 2006. The overview includes the most relevant analytical determinations classified in the following two types: (1) non-chromatographic methods and (2) chromatographic methods.

Capillary electrophoresis contributions to the hydromorphone metabolism in man

CE-ESI multistage IT-MS (CE-MS(n), n < or = 4) and computer simulation of fragmentation are demonstrated to be effective tools to detect and identify phase I and phase II metabolites of hydromorphone (HMOR) in human urine. Using the same CE conditions as previously developed for the analysis of urinary oxycodone and its metabolites, HMOR and its phase I metabolites produced by N-demethylation, 6-keto-reduction and N-oxidation and phase II conjugates of HMOR and its metabolites formed with glucuronic acid, glucose, and sulfuric acid could be detected in urine samples of a patient that were collected during a pharmacotherapy episode with daily ingestion of 48 mg of HMOR chloride. The CE-MS(n) data obtained with the HMOR standard, synthesized hydromorphol and hydromorphone-N-oxide, and CYP3A4 in vitro produced norhydromorphone were employed to identify the metabolites. This approach led to the identification of previously unknown HMOR metabolites, including HMOR-3O-glucide and various N-oxides, structures for which no standard compounds or mass spectra library data were available. Furthermore, the separation of alpha- and beta-hydromorphol, the stereoisomers of 6-keto-reduced HMOR, was achieved by CE in the presence of the single isomer heptakis(2,3-diacetyl-6-sulfato)-beta-CD. The obtained data indicate that the urinary excretion of alpha-hydromorphol is larger than that of beta-hydromorphol.

An automated and fully validated LC-MS/MS procedure for the simultaneous determination of 11 opioids used in palliative care, with 5 of their metabolites

A fully validated liquid chromatographic procedure coupled with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) is presented for quantitative determination of the opioids buprenorphine, codeine, fentanyl, hydromorphone, methadone, morphine, oxycodone, oxymorphone, piritramide, tilidine, and tramadol together with their metabolites bisnortilidine, morphine-glucuronides, norfentanyl, and nortilidine in blood plasma after an automatically performed solid-phase extraction (SPE). Separation was achieved in 35 min on a Phenomenex C12 MAX-RP column (4 microm, 150 x 2 mm) using a gradient of ammonium formiate buffer (pH 3.5) and acetonitrile. The validation data were within the required limits. The assay was successfully applied to authentic plasma samples, allowing confirmation of the diagnosis of overdose situations as well as monitoring of patients' compliance, especially in patients under palliative care.