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Jin M, Wen ZF, Liu YJ, Qian M, Zhou Y, Bian Y, Zhang Y, Feng XS. Trihalomethanes in water samples: Recent update on pretreatment and detection methods. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 341:140005. [PMID: 37652249 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are classified as volatile organic compounds, considered to be a disinfection by-product during water disinfection process. THMs have been shown to be cytotoxic, genotoxic and mutagenic, with a risk of cancer when they contact with people directly. To protect public health and monitor water quality, it is important to monitor and measure THMs in drinking water. Therefore, it is crucial to develop fast, accurate, highly sensitivity and green analysis methods of THMs in various complicated matrices. Here, this review presents an overall summary of the current state of the pretreatment and detection methods for THMs in various sample matrices since 2005. In addition to the traditionally used pretreatment methods for THMs (such as headspace extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, liquid-liquid extraction), the new-developed methods, including solid-phase extraction, QuEChERS and different microextraction methods, have been summarized. The detection methods include gas chromatography-based methods, sensors and several other approaches. Additionally, benefits and limitations of different techniques were also discussed and compared. This study is anticipated to offer fruitful insights into the further advancement and widespread applications of pretreatment and detection technologies for THMs as well as for related substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Jin
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Zhi-Feng Wen
- (Department of Neurosurgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China, Beijing, 110001, China
| | - Ya-Jie Liu
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Min Qian
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China
| | - Yu Zhou
- (Department of Pharmacy, National Cancer Center/National Clinical Research Center for Cancer/Cancer Hospital, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, 100021, China
| | - Yu Bian
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China.
| | - Yuan Zhang
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China.
| | - Xue-Song Feng
- (School of Pharmacy, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110122, China.
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Ragnebro O, Helmersmo K, Fornander L, Olsen R, Bryngelsson IL, Graff P, Westerlund J. Chloroform exposure in air and water in Swedish indoor swimming pools-urine as a biomarker of occupational exposure. Ann Work Expo Health 2023; 67:876-885. [PMID: 37339253 PMCID: PMC10410492 DOI: 10.1093/annweh/wxad035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Disinfection by-products are produced in water disinfected with chlorine-based products. One such group is trihalomethanes, and chloroform is the most abundant trihalomethane in swimming pool areas. Chloroform can be absorbed by inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption, and is classified as possibly carcinogenic. AIM To investigate if chloroform concentrations in air and water affect the chloroform concentration in urine samples of exposed swimming pool workers. METHODS Workers from 5 adventure indoor swimming pools carried personal chloroform air samplers and provided up to 4 urine samples during one workday. Chloroform concentrations were analyzed with a linear mixed model analysis to investigate a possible correlation between air and urine concentrations. RESULTS The geometric mean chloroform concentration was 11 μg/m3 in air and 0.009 µg/g creatinine in urine among individuals with ≤2 h at work, 0.023 µg/g creatinine among those with >2-5 working hours, and 0.026 µg/g creatinine in the group with >5-10 working hours. A risk of higher levels of chloroform in urine was associated with longer hours at work (≤2 h versus >5-10 h, odds ratio [OR] 2.04, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.25-3.34), personal chloroform concentrations in air (≤17.00 µg/m3 versus >28.00 µg/m3, OR 9.23, 95% CI 3.68-23.13) and working at least half the working day near the swimming pools (OR 3.16, 95% CI 1.33-7.55). Executing work tasks in the swimming pool water was not associated with higher chloroform concentrations in urine compared to only working on land (OR 0.82, 95% CI 0.27-2.45). CONCLUSION There is an accumulation of chloroform concentrations in urine during a workday and a correlation between personal air and urine concentrations of chloroform among workers in Swedish indoor swimming pools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar Ragnebro
- School of Medical Sciences, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Kristin Helmersmo
- National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), 0363 Oslo, Norway
| | - Louise Fornander
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Raymond Olsen
- National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), 0363 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ing-Liss Bryngelsson
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Pål Graff
- National Institute of Occupational Health (STAMI), 0363 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jessica Westerlund
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, 701 82 Örebro, Sweden
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Yang L, Chen X, She Q, Cao G, Liu Y, Chang VWC, Tang CY. Regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pool waters: A critical review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2018; 121:1039-1057. [PMID: 30392941 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2018.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The microbial safety of swimming pool waters (SPWs) becomes increasingly important with the popularity of swimming activities. Disinfection aiming at killing microbes in SPWs produces disinfection by-products (DBPs), which has attracted considerable public attentions due to their high frequency of occurrence, considerable concentrations and potent toxicity. We reviewed the latest research progress within the last four decades on the regulation, formation, exposure, and treatment of DBPs in the context of SPWs. This paper specifically discussed DBP regulations in different regions, formation mechanisms related with disinfectants, precursors and other various conditions, human exposure assessment reflected by biomarkers or epidemiological evidence, and the control and treatment of DBPs. Compared to drinking water with natural organic matter as the main organic precursor of DBPs, the additional human inputs (i.e., body fluids and personal care products) to SPWs make the water matrix more complicated and lead to the formation of more types and greater concentrations of DBPs. Dermal absorption and inhalation are two main exposure pathways for trihalomethanes while ingestion for haloacetic acids, reflected by DBP occurrence in human matrices including exhaled air, urine, blood, and plasma. Studies show that membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, biodegradation, thermal degradation, chemical reduction, and some hybrid processes are the potential DBP treatment technologies. The removal efficiency, possible mechanisms and future challenges of these DBP treatment methods are summarized in this review, which may facilitate their full-scale applications and provide potential directions for further research extension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linyan Yang
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore; Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xueming Chen
- Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Qianhong She
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Guomin Cao
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yongdi Liu
- School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Victor W-C Chang
- Residues and Resource Reclamation Centre (R3C), Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, CleanTech One, Singapore 637141, Singapore; Department of Civil Engineering, Monash University, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Chuyang Y Tang
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong.
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Charisiadis P, Makris KC. Cohort-friendly protocol for a sensitive and fast method for trihalomethanes in urine using gas chromatography—Triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2018; 1072:336-340. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2017] [Revised: 11/15/2017] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Antón AP, Ferreira AMC, Pinto CG, Cordero BM, Pavón JLP. Headspace generation coupled to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for the automated determination and quantification of endogenous compounds in urine. Aldehydes as possible markers of oxidative stress. J Chromatogr A 2014; 1367:9-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Charisiadis P, Makris KC. A sensitive and fast method for trihalomethanes in urine using gas chromatography–triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2014; 947-948:17-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.11.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/30/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Charisiadis P, Andra SS, Makris KC, Christodoulou M, Christophi CA, Kargaki S, Stephanou EG. Household cleaning activities as noningestion exposure determinants of urinary trihalomethanes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2013; 48:770-780. [PMID: 24266582 DOI: 10.1021/es404220z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Previous epidemiological studies linking drinking water total trihalomethanes (THM) with pregnancy disorders or bladder cancer have not accounted for specific household cleaning activities that could enhance THM exposures. We examined the relation between household cleaning activities (washing dishes/clothes, mopping, toilet cleaning, and washing windows/surfaces) and urinary THM concentrations accounting for water sources, uses, and demographics. A cross-sectional study (n = 326) was conducted during the summer in Nicosia, Cyprus, linking household addresses to the geocoded public water pipe network, individual household tap water, and urinary THM measurements. Household tap water THM concentrations ranged between 3-129 μg L(-1), while the median (Q1, Q3) creatinine-adjusted urinary THM concentration in females (669 ng g(-1) (353, 1377)) was significantly (p < 0.001) higher than that in males (399 ng g(-1), (256, 681)). Exposure assessment, based on THM exposure equivalency units, showed that hand dishwashing, mopping, and toilet cleaning significantly (p < 0.001) increased urinary THM levels. The effect of dishwashing by females ≥36 y of age remained significant, even after adjusting for potential confounders. No significant (p > 0.05) association was observed between ingestion-based THM exposure equivalency units and urinary THM. Noningestion routes of THM exposures during performance of routine household cleaning activities were shown for the first time to exert a major influence on urinary THM levels. It is warranted that future pregnancy-birth cohorts include monitoring of noningestion household THM exposures in their study design.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Charisiadis
- Cyprus International Institute for Environmental and Public Health in association with Harvard School of Public Health, Cyprus University of Technology , Irenes 95, Limassol, 3041, Cyprus
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Lee JY, Kim S, Lee JT, Choi JH, Lee J, Pyo H. Rapid Determination of Volatile Organic Compounds in Human Whole Blood Using Static Headspace Sampling with Gas Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry. B KOREAN CHEM SOC 2012. [DOI: 10.5012/bkcs.2012.33.12.3963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Lourencetti C, Grimalt JO, Marco E, Fernandez P, Font-Ribera L, Villanueva CM, Kogevinas M. Trihalomethanes in chlorine and bromine disinfected swimming pools: air-water distributions and human exposure. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2012; 45:59-67. [PMID: 22572118 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2012.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2010] [Revised: 03/20/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This first study of trihalomethanes (THMs) in swimming pools using bromine agents for water disinfection under real conditions shows that the mixtures of these compounds are largely dominated by bromoform in a similar process as chloroform becomes the dominant THM in pools disinfected with chlorine agents. Bromoform largely predominates in air and water of the pool installations whose concentration changes are linearly correlated. However, the air concentrations of bromoform account for about 6-11% of the expected concentrations according to theoretical partitioning defined by the Henry law. Bromoform in exhaled air of swimmers is correlated with the air concentrations of this disinfectant by-product in the pool building. Comparison of the THM exhaled air concentrations between swimmers and volunteers bathing in the water without swimming or standing in the building outside the water suggest that physical activity enhance exposure to these disinfectant by-products. They also indicate that in swimming pools, besides inhalation, dermal absorption is a relevant route for the incorporation of THMs, particularly those with lower degree of bromination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Lourencetti
- Department of Environmental Chemistry (I.D.Æ.A.-C.S.I.C.), Jordi Girona, 18, 08034-Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Significant decrease of THMs generated during chlorination of river water by previous photo-Fenton treatment at near neutral pH. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2011.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Cardador M, Gallego M. Determination of haloacetic acids in human urine by headspace gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:1824-30. [PMID: 20541479 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.05.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2010] [Revised: 05/11/2010] [Accepted: 05/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Dobrzyńska E, Pośniak M, Szewczyńska M, Buszewski B. Chlorinated Volatile Organic Compounds—Old, However, Actual Analytical and Toxicological Problem. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/10408340903547054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Jakubowska N, Zygmunt B, Polkowska Ż, Zabiegała B, Namieśnik J. Sample preparation for gas chromatographic determination of halogenated volatile organic compounds in environmental and biological samples. J Chromatogr A 2009; 1216:422-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2008.08.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2008] [Revised: 08/20/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Caro J, Gallego M. Alveolar air and urine analyses as biomarkers of exposure to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2008; 42:5002-5007. [PMID: 18678040 DOI: 10.1021/es800415p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The exposure of workers and swimmers at an indoor swimming pool to trihalomethanes (THMs) as a consequence of water chlorination was evaluated by analyzing alveolar air and urine samples. Environmental monitoring of THMs in water and ambient air was also performed in order to assess the possible correlation between environmental and biological samples. The sampling was done concurrently, taking the urine and alveolar air samples before and after the work shift for 15 workers and the swimming activity for 12 swimmers. A high THM uptake was observed in alveolar air and urine of subjects exposed, with chloroform being the most abundant THM. Mean chloroform levels in alveolar air and urine before exposure were 4 microg/ m3 and 475 ng/L, respectively. After 2 h of exposure, concentration increases of ca. 8 times in alveolar air and 2 times in urine were observed in workers. After 1 h swimming, the increases found in swimmers were ca. 20 and 3 times in alveolar air and urine, respectively. High increases have also been observed in bromodichloromethane levels. We have obtained excellent correlations between the chloroform concentrations found in the swimming pool ambient air/alveolar air, and between the urine/ alveolar air of the participants after exposure (r > 0.9). In conclusion, alveolar air provides better response sensitivity and shorter reaction time to external exposure than urine, being therefore the most sensitive biomarker.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Caro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, E-14071 Córdoba, Spain
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Richardson SD. Environmental Mass Spectrometry: Emerging Contaminants and Current Issues. Anal Chem 2008; 80:4373-402. [DOI: 10.1021/ac800660d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 209] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susan D. Richardson
- National Exposure Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605
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Caro J, Gallego M. Assessment of exposure of workers and swimmers to trihalomethanes in an indoor swimming pool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2007; 41:4793-8. [PMID: 17695931 DOI: 10.1021/es070084c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
A simultaneous study on workers' and swimmers' exposure to trihalomethanes (THMs) in an indoor swimming pool has been carried out by analyzing urine samples using the headspace and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry technique. The subjects of this study were male and female workers of an indoor swimming pool as well as swimmers regularly attending the pool. The results reported show that only chloroform and bromodichloromethane were detected in the urine of those people exposed, which can be used as a specific index of exposure to these compounds. THM uptake of swimmers after 1 h of swimming was higher than that of workers after a 4 h work shift since THM levels in the workers' urine were associated only with inhalation, while levels in swimmers' urine were mainly associated with dermal absorption, apart from inhalation and occasional ingestion, as well as increased uptake due to the physical stress (swimming). The kinetics of THM excretion in the urine of the participants exposed has been calculated after termination of the exposure to select the sampling time and determine the elimination process. An interval of 15 min after exposure was selected as the sampling time, and the absorbed dosage was eliminated by 2 h after exposure. A good correlation between THM concentrations found in the swimming pool water and the urinary THM concentrations of the people affected after exposure has also been obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Caro
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Campus of Rabanales, University of Córdoba, E-14071 Córdoba, Spain
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