Quantitative determination of cyclic phosphatidic acid in human serum by LC/ESI/MS/MS

Lysophosphatidylcholine: Potential Target for the Treatment of Chronic Pain

The bioactive lipid lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC), a major phospholipid component of oxidized low-density lipoprotein (Ox-LDL), originates from the cleavage of phosphatidylcholine by phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and is catabolized to other substances by different enzymatic pathways. LPC exerts pleiotropic effects mediated by its receptors, G protein-coupled signaling receptors, Toll-like receptors, and ion channels to activate several second messengers. Lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) is increasingly considered a key marker/factor positively in pathological states, especially inflammation and atherosclerosis development. Current studies have indicated that the injury of nervous tissues promotes oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, as well as excessive accumulation of LPC, enhancing the membrane hyperexcitability to induce chronic pain, which may be recognized as one of the hallmarks of chronic pain. However, findings from lipidomic studies of LPC have been lacking in the context of chronic pain. In this review, we focus in some detail on LPC sources, biochemical pathways, and the signal-transduction system. Moreover, we outline the detection methods of LPC for accurate analysis of each individual LPC species and reveal the pathophysiological implication of LPC in chronic pain, which makes it an interesting target for biomarkers and the development of medicine regarding chronic pain.

Characterization of recombinant murine GDE4 and GDE7, enzymes producing lysophosphatidic acid and/or cyclic phosphatidic acid

GDE4 and GDE7 are membrane-bound enzymes that exhibit lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD) activities. We found that GDE7 produced not only lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) but also cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) from lysophospholipids by a transphosphatidylation reaction. In contrast, GDE4 produced only LPA. The analysis of substrate specificity showed that 1-alkyl-lysophosphospholipids were preferred substrates for both enzymes rather than 1-alkyl-lysophospholipids and 1-alkenyl-lysophospholipids. Among the various lysophospholipids with different polar head groups that were tested, lysophosphatidylglycerol and lysophosphatidylserine were preferred substrates for GDE4 and GDE7, respectively. The detailed analysis of the dependency of the enzyme activities of GDE4 and GDE7 on divalent cations suggested multiple divalent cations were bound in the active sites of both enzymes. Taken together, these results suggest the possibility that GDE7 functions as a cPA-producing enzyme in the body.

2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced prostaglandin E2 production in a human macrophage cell line

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) is a naturally occurring phospholipid mediator that contains a unique cyclic phosphate ring at the sn-2 and sn-3 positions of its glycerol backbone. Using mouse models for multiple sclerosis (cuprizone-induced demyelination and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis) and traumatic brain injury, we revealed that cPA and its metabolically stabilized cPA derivative, 2-carba-cPA (2ccPA), have potential to protect against neuroinflammation. In this study, we investigated whether 2ccPA has anti-inflammatory effect on peripheral immune function or not using inflammation-induced macrophages-like cell line, THP-1 monocytes differentiated by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA). Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated THP-1 cells were found to have higher expression of the mRNAs of several inflammation-related cytokines and of the enzyme cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2); however, when THP-1 cells were stimulated by LPS in the presence of 2ccPA, the increase in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine and Cox-2 mRNA was attenuated. 2ccPA treatment also decreased the amount of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) produced by LPS-stimulated THP-1 cells and decreased expression of the mRNA of prostaglandin E receptor 2 (EP2, PTGER2), a PGE2 receptor that mediates inflammation. These results indicate that 2ccPA has anti-inflammatory properties.

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2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid inhibits prostaglandin E2 production.

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2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid has anti-inflammatory effect.

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2-Carba cyclic phosphatidic acid has effect on peripheral immune function.

Quantitative determination of cyclic phosphatidic acid and its carba analog in mouse organs and plasma using LC-MS/MS

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA), an analog of lysophosphatidic acid, is involved in the regulation of many cellular processes. A sensitive and specific method to quantify the molecular species of cPA is important for studying the physiological and pathophysiological roles of cPA. Here, we developed a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)-based quantification method for the simultaneous detection of cPA species having various fatty acids (16:0, 18:0, 18:1, and 18:2) as well as 2-carba-cPA, a chemically synthesized analog of cPA. Chromatography was performed using a reversed-phase C18 column. cPA species were detected using a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. cPA 17:0 was used as an internal standard. Intra- and interday precision values (CV%) were within 10%. The linear range of detection for each cPA species was 0.01 μg/mL to 5 μg/mL, with correlation coefficients of 0.998 or higher. The developed method was applied to the quantification of cPA species in mouse plasma and organs. The concentrations of cPA 16:0, 18:0, and 18:1 were revealed to be significantly reduced in the brains of cuprizone-treated mice, a model of multiple sclerosis, compared with control mice. These findings could be important for understanding the roles of cPA in the neurodegenerative processes associated with multiple sclerosis.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid treatment suppress cuprizone-induced demyelination and motor dysfunction in mice

Multiple sclerosis is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system leading to progressive cognitive and motor dysfunction, which is characterized by neuroinflammation, demyelination, astrogliosis, loss of oligodendrocytes, and axonal pathologies. Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) is a naturally occurring phospholipid mediator with a unique cyclic phosphate ring structure at the sn-2 and sn-3 positions of the glycerol backbone. cPA elicits a neurotrophin-like action and protects hippocampal neurons from ischemia-induced delayed neuronal death. In this study, we investigated the effects of cPA on cuprizone-induced demyelination, which is a model of multiple sclerosis. Mice were fed a diet containing 0.2% cuprizone for 5 weeks, which induces severe demyelination, astrocyte and microglial activation, and motor dysfunction. Simultaneous administration of cPA effectively attenuated cuprizone-induced demyelination, glial activation, and motor dysfunction. These data indicate that cPA may be a useful treatment to reduce the extent of demyelination and the severity of motor dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. cPA is a potential lead compound in the development of drugs for the treatment of this devastating disease.

Phospholipase D toxins of brown spider venom convert lysophosphatidylcholine and sphingomyelin to cyclic phosphates

Venoms of brown spiders in the genus Loxosceles contain phospholipase D enzyme toxins that can cause severe dermonecrosis and even death in humans. These toxins cleave the substrates sphingomyelin and lysophosphatidylcholine in mammalian tissues, releasing the choline head group. The other products of substrate cleavage have previously been reported to be monoester phospholipids, which would result from substrate hydrolysis. Using (31)P NMR and mass spectrometry we demonstrate that recombinant toxins, as well as whole venoms from diverse Loxosceles species, exclusively catalyze transphosphatidylation rather than hydrolysis, forming cyclic phosphate products from both major substrates. Cyclic phosphates have vastly different biological properties from their monoester counterparts, and they may be relevant to the pathology of brown spider envenomation.

Lysophosphatidic acid in atherosclerotic diseases

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) is a potent bioactive phospholipid. As many other biological active lipids, LPA is an autacoid: it is formed locally on demand, and it acts locally near its site of synthesis. LPA has a plethora of biological activities on blood cells (platelets, monocytes) and cells of the vessel wall (endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, macrophages) that are all key players in atherosclerotic and atherothrombotic processes. The specific cellular actions of LPA are determined by its multifaceted molecular structures, the expression of multiple G-protein coupled LPA receptors at the cell surface and their diverse coupling to intracellular signalling pathways. Numerous studies have now shown that LPA has thrombogenic and atherogenic actions. Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive, yet concise, thoughtful and critical review of this exciting research area and to pinpoint potential pharmacological targets for inhibiting thrombogenic and atherogenic activities of LPA. We hope that the review will serve to accelerate knowledge of basic and clinical science, and to foster drug development in the field of LPA and atherosclerotic/atherothrombotic diseases.

Protection of neuroblastoma Neuro2A cells from hypoxia-induced apoptosis by cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA)

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (cPA) is a naturally occurring phospholipid mediator with a unique cyclic phosphate ring at the sn-2 and sn-3 positions of its glycerol backbone. We have previously shown that cPA significantly suppresses ischemia-induced delayed neuronal death and the accumulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein in the CA1 region of the rat hippocampus. These results indicated that the systemic administration of cPA can protect hippocampal neurons against ischemia-induced delayed neuronal cell death. In the current study, we investigated the effects of cPA on neuronal cell death caused by hypoxia in vitro and the molecular mechanisms underlying these effects. We used cobalt chloride (CoCl₂) to expose cells to hypoxic conditions in vitro. Treating mouse neuroblastoma (Neuro2A) cells with CoCl₂ induced nuclear DNA condensation and phosphatidylserine exposure. However, adding cPA led to the suppression of CoCl₂-induced apoptosis in a cPA dose-dependent manner and attenuated the increase in the Bax/Bcl-2 ratio caused by CoCl₂. Quantitative PCR analysis showed that Neuro2A cells strongly express the LPA₁, LPA₂, and LPA₆, which are G-protein coupled receptors that can be activated by cPA. To date, LPA₁ and LPA₂ have been reported to exhibit antiapoptotic activity. Therefore, to assess the roles of LPA₁ and LPA₂ on cPA-induced neuroprotective functions, Ki16425, a selective LPA₁ and LPA₃ antagonist, was adopted to know the LPA₁ function and siRNA was used to knockdown the expression of LPA₂. On the basis of our results, we propose that cPA-induced protection of Neuro2A cells from CoCl₂-induced hypoxia damage is mediated via LPA₂.

Alterations in lipid signaling underlie lipodystrophy secondary to AGPAT2 mutations

Congenital generalized lipodystrophy (CGL), secondary to AGPAT2 mutation is characterized by the absence of adipocytes and development of severe insulin resistance. In the current study, we investigated the adipogenic defect associated with AGPAT2 mutations. Adipogenesis was studied in muscle-derived multipotent cells (MDMCs) isolated from vastus lateralis biopsies obtained from controls and subjects harboring AGPAT2 mutations and in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes after knockdown or overexpression of AGPAT2. We demonstrate an adipogenic defect using MDMCs from control and CGL human subjects with mutated AGPAT2. This defect was rescued in CGL MDMCs with a retrovirus expressing AGPAT2. Both CGL-derived MDMCs and 3T3-L1 cells with knockdown of AGPAT2 demonstrated an increase in cell death after induction of adipogenesis. Lack of AGPAT2 activity reduces Akt activation, and overexpression of constitutively active Akt can partially restore lipogenesis. AGPAT2 modulated the levels of phosphatidic acid, lysophosphatidic acid, phosphatidylinositol species, as well as the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) inhibitor cyclic phosphatidic acid. The PPARγ agonist pioglitazone partially rescued the adipogenic defect in CGL cells. We conclude that AGPAT2 regulates adipogenesis through the modulation of the lipome, altering normal activation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt and PPARγ pathways in the early stages of adipogenesis.

A new role for cyclic phosphatidic acid as a PPARgamma antagonist

A recent study in Molecular Cell (Tsukahara et al., 2010) identifies cyclic phosphatidic acid (CPA) as a naturally occurring PPARgamma antagonist that can be generated from lysophospholipids by signal-dependent activation of phospholipase D2. This endogenous CPA regulates PPARgamma functions required for adipogenesis, glucose homeostasis, and vascular wall biology.

Lysophosphatidic acid signaling in airway epithelium: role in airway inflammation and remodeling

Lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a potent bioactive phospholipid, induces diverse cellular responses, including cell proliferation, migration, and cytokine release. LPA can be generated intracellularly and extracellularly through multiple synthetic pathways by action of various enzymes, such as phospholipase A(1/2) (PLA(1/2)), phospholipase D (PLD), acylglycerol kinase (AGK), and lysophospholipase D (lysoPLD). Metabolism of LPA is regulated by a family of lipid phosphate phosphatases (LPPs). Significant amounts of LPA have been detected in various biological fluids, including serum, saliva, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF). The most significant effects of LPA appear to be through activation of the G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), termed LPA(1-6). LPA regulates gene expression through activation of several transcriptional factors, such as nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB), AP-1, and C/EBPbeta. In addition to GPCRs, cross-talk between LPA receptors and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) partly regulates LPA-induced intracellular signaling and cellular responses. Airway epithelial cells participate in innate immunity through the release of cytokines, chemokines, lipid mediators, other inflammatory mediators and an increase in barrier function in response to a variety of inhaled stimuli. Expression of LPA receptors has been demonstrated in airway epithelial cells. This review summarizes our recent observations of the role of LPA/LPA-Rs in regulation of airway epithelium, especially in relation to the secretion of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators and regulation of airway barrier function.

Cyclic phosphatidic acid - a unique bioactive phospholipid

Cyclic phosphatidic acid (CPA) is a naturally occurring analog of the growth factor-like phospholipid mediator, lysophosphatidic acid (LPA). The sn-2 hydroxy group of CPA forms a 5-membered ring with the sn-3 phosphate. CPA affects numerous cellular functions, including anti-mitogenic regulation of the cell cycle, induction of stress fiber formation, inhibition of tumor cell invasion and metastasis, and regulation of differentiation and survival of neuronal cells. Interestingly, many of these cellular responses caused by CPA oppose those of LPA despite the activation of apparently overlapping receptor populations. Since the early 1990s, studies on CPA actions gradually developed, and we are now beginning to understand the importance of this lipid. In this review, we focus on the current knowledge about CPA, including enzymatic formation of CPA, unique biological activities and biological targets of CPA, and we also explore metabolically stabilized CPA analogs.