Miniaturized hollow fiber assisted liquid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry for determination of benzophenone and derivates in human urine sample

Easy determination of benzophenone and its derivatives in sunscreen samples by direct-immersion solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Benzophenones (BPs) absorb different sun radiation wavelengths, making them effective UVA and UVB filters, widely used in industry. In Europe, sunscreen products contain regulated amounts (6 % w/w) of benzophenone-3 (BP-3), usually combined with other filters like octocrylene. BPs are mutagens in UV radiation, and octocrylene may degrade into BPs, making their monitoring crucial. The present manuscript proposed a novel procedure based on liquid-liquid extraction followed by direct-immersion solid-phase microextraction (LLE-DI-SPME) to isolate and determine 10 BPs in sunscreen lotions with potential results. Parameters like extraction solvent, pH, adsorption, desorption time, stirring, sating effect, and presence of organic solvents were optimized and compared with different SPME fibers, being polyacrylate (PA) fiber the most effective. Detection and quantification were performed by gas chromatography-mass-spectrometry. Analytical parameters as limits of detection were 0.05-0.10 µg kg-1, while the linear range was 0.16 up to 2000 µg kg-1. In terms of recovery, the method ranged from 83 % to 103 %; the precision of the method was good in terms of relative standard deviation (RSD) from 3.2 % to 18.7 % and without a remarkable matrix effect (-15.06-8.45 %). Despite the complexity of the samples and the difficulty posed by the DI-SPME technique, the method proved robust. The proposed method successfully detected 10 BPs in 6 different sunscreen lotions. The total presence of BPs in sunscreens ranged from 165 to 931 mg kg-1, with BP-3 detected in all samples from 4.2 to 740 mg kg-1.

Maternal exposure to benzophenone derivatives and their impacts on offspring's birth outcomes in a Middle Eastern population

Widespread use of benzophenones (BPs), a group of environmental phenolic compounds, is suspected of interfering with human health. The association of prenatal exposure to benzophenone derivatives with birth outcomes including birth weight and length, head, arm and thoracic circumference, abnormalities, corpulence index and anterior fontanelle diameter (AFD) was investigated. Mother-infant pairs of 166 within PERSIAN cohort population in Isfahan, Iran, in the 1st and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy were assessed. Four common benzophenone metabolites including 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone (BP-1), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzophenone (BP-3), 4-hydroxy benzophenone (4-OH-BP) and 2,2'-dihydroxy-4-methoxy benzophenone (BP-8) were measured in maternal urine samples. The median concentration of 4-OH-BP, BP-3, BP-1 and BP-8 were 3.15, 16.98, 9.95 and 1.04 µg/g Cr, respectively. In the 1st trimester, 4-OH-BP showed a significant correlation with AFD in total infants, decreasing 0.034 cm AFD per a log unit increase of 4-OH-BP. Within the male neonates, 4-OH-BP in the 1st and BP-8 in the 3rd trimester were significantly associated with head circumference and AFD increase, respectively. Among female neonates in the 3rd trimester, increasing 4-OH-BP and BP-3 concentration was correlated with a decrease in birth weight and AFD, respectively. This study demonstrated that all the target BP derivatives can influence normal fetal growth at any age of the pregnancy, nevertheless, to support these findings further studies are needed in a large and different group population.

Assessment of human exposure to benzophenone-type UV filters: A review

To avoid the harmful effects of UV radiation, benzophenone-type UV filters (BPs) are widely used in personal care products and other synthetic products. Biomonitoring studies have shown the presence of BPs in various human biological samples, raising health concerns. However, there is a paucity of data on the global human exposure to this group of contaminants. In this study, we compiled data on the body burden of BPs along with the possible exposure routes and biotransformation pathways. BPs can easily penetrate the skin barrier and thus, they can be absorbed through the skin. In the human body, BPs can undergo Phase I (mainly demethylation and hydroxylation) and Phase II (mainly glucuronidation and sulfation) biotransformations. From a total of 158 studies, most of the studies are related to urine (concentration up to 92.7 mg L^-1), followed by those reported in blood (up to 0.9 mg L^-1) and milk (up to 0.8 mg L^-1). Among BPs, benzophenone-1 and benzophenone-3 are the most commonly detected congeners. The body burden of BPs is associated with various factors, including the country of residence, lifestyle, income, education level, and ethnicity. The presence of BPs in maternal urine (up to 1.1 mg L^-1), placenta (up to 9.8 ng g^-1), and amniotic fluid (up to 15.7 μg L^-1) suggests potential risks of prenatal exposure. In addition, transplacental transfer of BPs is possible, as demonstrated by their presence in maternal serum and cord serum. The possible association of BPs exposure and health effects was discussed. Future human biomonitoring studies and studies on the potential health effects are warranted. Overall, this review provides a summary of the global human exposure to BPs and can serve as supporting evidence to guide usage in order to protect humans from being exposed to BPs.

Multiclass determination of endocrine disruptors in urine by hollow fiber microporous membrane and liquid chromatography

A simple and rapid methodology was developed using hollow fiber membrane microporous and a 96-well plate system for a high throughput multiclass determination of endocrine disruptors in human urine (diclofenac, diazepam, carbamazepine, ibuprofen, naproxen, carbofuran, methyl parathion, 17-α-ethynyl estradiol, bisphenol A and benzophenone). The quantification and detection of the chemicals were carried out by an HPLC-diode array detector. The fixed conditions for carrying out the method optimization were 1.5 mL of sample and 300 μL of solvent desorption. Multivariate and univariate models were applied to optimize the parameters of the method, achieving the following conditions: 20% diluted urine, 1-octanol of extraction solvent impregnated in the microporous membrane, 70 min extraction in pH 3.0 and 30 min with a mixture of 75% methanol and 25% acetonitrile (v/v) for the desorption. The R² were ≤ 0.9973 for ibuprofen. The LOD ranged from 3.3 to 16.7 ng mL^-1 and the LOQ from 10 to 50 ng mL^-1. Relative recoveries ranged from 71% to 126%. The repeatability (n = 3) ranged from 0.22% to 12.01%, and the intermediate precision (n = 9) ranged from 0.13% to 17.76%. The method presents a good alternative for the determination of different classes of compounds in human urine.

The association of prenatal exposure to benzophenones with gestational age and offspring size at birth

In recent decades, emerging environmental pollutants such as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have become a particular concern. This study examined the association of maternal exposure to benzophenones as one of the EDCs with gestational age and evaluated their effects on birth outcomes including birth weight, birth length, head circumference, and Ponderal Index. We assessed 166 pregnant mothers of the PERSIAN cohort population of Isfahan, Iran, in the 1st and 3rd trimesters of pregnancy and their infants at birth. Four common benzophenones (BPs) including 2,4-dihydroxy benzophenone (BP-1), 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy benzophenone (BP-3), 4-hydroxy benzophenone (4-OH-BP), and 2,2'-dihydroxy-4-methoxy benzophenone (BP-8) were measured in maternal urine samples. The median urinary concentrations of 4-OH-BP, BP-3, BP-1, and BP-8 in the 1st trimester were 6.62, 7.5, 4.39, and 1.32 µg/g creatinine and those in the 3rd trimester were 3.15, 16.98, 9.95, and 1.04 µg/g creatinine, respectively. BP-3 was the predominant metabolite in both trimesters. There was a significant correlation between BP-3, BP-1, and 4-OH-BP levels (p < 0.05) but not BP-8. BP-1 showed a significant positive association with gestational age (GA) in all infants in the 1st trimester, but a negative association was observed between BP-3 and BP-1 levels and GA in girls. Classification of infants' birth weight for different GAs represented that the majority of them were appropriate for GA. However, boys' weights were heavier than girls. Also, birth outcomes of preterm (< 37 weeks) infants were noticeably lower than term infants (37-42 weeks). This study demonstrated that benzophenone derivatives especially BP-3 can affect the duration of pregnancy and consequently fetal growth in the early and late stages of pregnancy. This is more pronounced in girls; however, more investigations in a different population are needed to prove the results. Therefore, the application of these compounds as a UV protector requires precise regulation to reduce exposure, especially in pregnant women.

An Overview of the Analytical Methods for the Determination of Organic Ultraviolet Filters in Cosmetic Products and Human Samples

UV filters are a group of compounds commonly used in different cosmetic products to absorb UV radiation. They are classified into a variety of chemical groups, such as benzophenones, salicylates, benzotriazoles, cinnamates, p-aminobenzoates, triazines, camphor derivatives, etc. Different tests have shown that some of these chemicals are absorbed through the skin and metabolised or bioaccumulated. These processes can cause negative health effects, including mutagenic and cancerogenic ones. Due to the absence of official monitoring protocols, there is an increased number of analytical methods that enable the determination of those compounds in cosmetic samples to ensure user safety, as well as in biological fluids and tissues samples, to obtain more information regarding their behaviour in the human body. This review aimed to show and discuss the published studies concerning analytical methods for the determination of organic UV filters in cosmetic and biological samples. It focused on sample preparation, analytical techniques, and analytical performance (limit of detection, accuracy, and repeatability).

UV filters in matched seminal fluid-, urine-, and serum samples from young men

Recent in vitro studies have shown that some chemical UV filters mimic the effect of progesterone in the activation of the CatSper Ca2⁺ channel in human spermatozoa. However, so far, the extent of exposure of human spermatozoa to chemical UV filters via the presence of these chemicals in seminal fluid has been unknown. Here, we present levels of UV filters measured in human seminal fluid and comparisons to levels measured in concurrently collected urine and serum samples. In total nine UV filters were analysed by TurboFlow-LC-MS/MS in paired urine, serum, and seminal fluid samples from 300 young Danish men from the general population; each man collected one of each sample type within 1 h. The samples were collected during February-December 2013 and only six of the men reported having used sunscreen during the 48 h preceding the sample collection. Four of the examined UV filters could be detected in seminal fluid samples at levels above LOD in more than 10% of the samples. Benzophenone (BP), benzophenone-1 (BP-1), and benzophenone-3 (BP-3) were most frequently detected in, respectively, 18%, 19%, and 27% of the seminal fluid samples albeit at levels one to two orders of magnitude lower than the levels observed in urine. 4-methyl-benzophenone (4-MBP) was detectable in 11% of the seminal fluid samples while in <5% of the urine samples. Overall 45% of the men had at least one of the UV filters present in their seminal fluid at detectable levels. For BP-1 and BP-3 individual levels in urine and seminal fluid were significantly correlated, while this was not evident for BP nor 4-MBP. In conclusion, chemical UV filters are present in men's seminal fluid; some of which can activate the human sperm-specific CatSper Ca²⁺ channel and thereby potentially interfere with the fertilisation process.

Human exposure assessment to a large set of polymer additives through the analysis of urine by solid phase extraction followed by ultra high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry

Polymer items are extensively present in the human environment. Humans may be consequently exposed to some compounds, such as additives, incorporated in these items. The objective of this work is to assess the human exposure to the main additives such as those authorized in the packaging for pharmaceutical products. The urinary matrix was selected to optimally answer this challenge because it has already been proven that the exposure to chemicals can be revealed by the analysis of this biological matrix. A multi-residue analytical method for the trace analysis at ng/mL in human urine was developed, and consisted of an extraction of analytes from urine by solid phase extraction (SPE) and an analysis by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to a tandem mass spectrometer (UHPLC-MS/MS). Even if the quantification of these compounds was an analytical challenge because of (i) the presence of these substances in the analytical process, (ii) the diversity of their physicochemical properties, and (iii) the complexity of the matrix, the optimized method exhibited quantification limits lower than 25ng/mL and recoveries between 51% and 120% for all compounds. The method was validated and applied to 52 human urines. To the best of our knowledge, this work presents the first study allowing the assessment of the occurrence of more than twenty polymer additives at ng/mL in human urine.

Microextraction in urine samples for gas chromatography: a review

Since the complexity origin of biological samples, the research trends have been directed to the development of new miniaturized sample preparation techniques. This review provides a comprehensive survey of past and present microextraction methods followed by GC analysis for preconcentration and determination of various analytes in urine samples. These techniques have been classified in three general groups, including liquid-, solid- and membrane-based techniques. The principal of different microextraction methods that are located in each general group as well as their various extraction modes and the recent developments introduced for them has been presented. Subsequently, a comparison survey has been carried out among different microextraction techniques and finally a future perspective has been predicted based on the existing literature.

[Pharmaceutical analysis of chemicals related with daily life products for safe and secure]

An association between exposure to trace hazardous chemicals such as endocrine disrupting chemicals and an increased incidence of human endocrine disease might be continued to study. The accurate and sensitive analytical methods for determination of various chemicals in human biospecimen such as urine, blood and breast milk have been studied by techniques including chromatography. In order to obtain the safe and secure life, the pharmaceutical analytical approaches might be applicable with the hopes of realizing scientific risk assessment of the chemicals derived from daily life products as regulatory sciences.

Benzophenone-type UV filters in urine and blood from children, adults, and pregnant women in China: partitioning between blood and urine as well as maternal and fetal cord blood

Limited information exists on the exposure of benzophenone (BP)-type UV filters (i.e., sunscreen compounds) in children, adults, and pregnant women in China. In this study, we determined the concentrations of five BP derivatives, BP-1, BP-2, BP-3, BP-8, and 4OH-BP in urine (n=101) as well as paired specimens of blood and urine (n=24 pairs) collected from adults; in matched maternal and fetal cord blood (n=20 pairs) collected from pregnant women; and in blood collected from children (n=10). 4OH-BP, BP-1, and BP-3 were found in 61%, 57%, and 25%, respectively, of the urine samples analyzed. 4OH-BP was found in all blood samples; BP-3 was found more frequently in the blood of adults (83%), followed, in decreasing order, by pregnant women (35%) and children (30%). Among all adults, urinary BP-3 concentrations were significantly (p<0.001) positively correlated with urinary BP-1 concentrations. Nevertheless, no significant correlations were found between urinary concentrations of BP-3 (or BP-1) and 4OH-BP. Our results suggest that human exposure to BP-3 and BP-1 is related, whereas 4OH-BP originates from a discrete source. Females had higher urinary concentrations of BP-3, BP-1 and 4OH-BP than males. The distribution profiles of BP-1 and its parent compound (i.e., BP-3) in urine decreased with increasing age of donors (p<0.05). The ratio of concentrations of BP-3 between blood and urine was 0.21 in adults, which was significantly lower than that for 4OH-BP (0.36). The concentration ratio of BPs between cord blood and maternal blood was higher for 4OH-BP (0.61) than that for BP-3 (0.48), which suggested greater trans-placental transfer potential of 4OH-BP. This is the first study to document the occurrence of BPs in paired urine and blood, and in matched maternal and fetal cord blood.

Determination of trace levels of benzophenone-type ultra-violet filters in real matrices by bar adsorptive micro-extraction using selective sorbent phases

Bar adsorptive micro-extraction (BAμE), using selective sorbent phases, followed by liquid desorption in combination with high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection (BAμE-LD/HPLC-DAD), is proposed for the determination of trace levels of four benzophenone-type UV filters (benzophenone, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzophenone, 2,4-hydroxybenzophenone and 4-hydroxybenzophenone) in real matrices. By comparing three polymers (P1, P2 and P3) and five activated carbons (AC1, AC2, AC3, AC4 and AC5) phases, P2 (a modified pyrrolidone polymer) and AC4 coatings showed much higher selectivity and capacity through BAμE, where the former offers multiple mechanisms of interaction and faster equilibrium kinetics. Assays performed on 25mL of ultra-pure water samples spiked at the 8.0μg/L level, yielded recoveries ranging from 76.6±8.3% to 103.5±6.4% depending on the sorbent phase used (P2 or AC4), under optimized experimental conditions. The analytical performance showed convenient detection limits (0.3-0.5μg/L) and good linear dynamic ranges (1.0-24.0μg/L) with remarkable determination coefficients (r(2)>0.9969). Excellent repeatability was also achieved through intraday (RSD<13.0%) and interday (RSD<8.9%) experiments. By using the standard addition methodology, the application of the present analytical approach on sea water, wastewater, commercial cosmetic products and urine samples revealed good sensitivity, absence of matrix effects and the occurrence of levels of some benzophenones. The proposed methodology that uses nanostructured particles and operates under the floating sampling technology proved to be a sorption-based static micro-extraction alternative to monitor benzophenone-type UV filters in real matrices. Moreover, is easy to implement, reliable, sensitive, requiring low sample volume and the possibility to choose the most selective sorbent coating according to the target compounds involved.

Development of miniaturized hollow-fiber assisted liquid-phase microextraction with in situ acyl derivatization followed by GC-MS for the determination of benzophenones in human urine samples

A simple and highly sensitive method that involves miniaturized hollow fiber assisted liquid-phase microextraction (HF-LPME) with in situ acyl derivatization and GC-MS was developed for the determination of benzophenone (BP) and related compounds in human urine samples. The limits of detection (S/N = 3) and quantification (S/N > 10) of BPs in human urine samples are 0.01 to 0.05 and 0.05 to 0.2 ng ml(-1), respectively. The average recoveries of BPs (n = 5) in human urine samples spiked with 10 and 50 ng ml(-1) BPs are 93.1 to 106.7% (RSD: 1.5 to 8.4%) and 96.3 to 101.5% (RSD: 3.0 to 7.7%), respectively. When the proposed method was applied to human urine samples, BPs were detected at the sub ng ml(-1) level.