Determination of biogenic amines in beer with pre-column derivatization by high performance liquid chromatography

Understanding How Chemical Pollutants Arise and Evolve in the Brewing Supply Chain: A Scoping Review

In this study, a critical review was carried out using the Web of ScienceTM Core Collection database to analyse the scientific literature published to date to identify lines of research and future perspectives on the presence of chemical pollutants in beer brewing. Beer is one of the world's most popular drinks and the most consumed alcoholic beverage. However, a widespread challenge with potential implications for human and animal health is the presence of physical, chemical, and/or microbiological contaminants in beer. Biogenic amines, heavy metals, mycotoxins, nitrosamines, pesticides, acrylamide, phthalates, bisphenols, microplastics, and, to a lesser extent, hydrocarbons (aliphatic chlorinated and polycyclic aromatic), carbonyls, furan-derivatives, polychlorinated biphenyls, and trihalomethanes are the main chemical pollutants found during the beer brewing process. Pollution sources include raw materials, technological process steps, the brewery environment, and packaging materials. Different chemical pollutants have been found during the beer brewing process, from barley to beer. Brewing steps such as steeping, kilning, mashing, boiling, fermentation, and clarification are critical in reducing the levels of many of these pollutants. As a result, their residual levels are usually below the maximum levels allowed by international regulations. Therefore, this work was aimed at assessing how chemical pollutants appear and evolve in the brewing process, according to research developed in the last few decades.

Influence of Brewing Process on the Profile of Biogenic Amines in Craft Beers

The evaluation of the biogenic amines (BAs) profile of different types of craft beers is herein presented. A previously developed and validated analytical method based on ion-pair chromatography coupled with potentiometric detection was used to determine the presence of 10 BAs. Good analytical features were obtained for all amines regarding linearity (R² values from 0.9873 ± 0.0015 to 0.9973 ± 0.0015), intra- and inter-day precision (RSD lower than 6.9% and 9.7% for beer samples, respectively), and accuracy (recovery between 83.2-108.9%). Detection and quantification limits range from 9.3 to 60.5 and from 31.1 to 202.3 µg L^-1, respectively. The validated method was applied to the analysis of four ale beers and one lager craft beer. Ethylamine, spermidine, spermine, and tyramine were detected in all analyzed samples while methylamine and phenylethylamine were not detected. Overall, pale ale beers had a significantly higher total content of BAs than those found in wheat pale and dark samples. A general least square regression model showed a good correlation between the total content of BAs and the brewing process, especially for Plato degree, mashing, and fermentation temperatures. Knowledge about the type of ingredients and manufacturing processes that contribute to higher concentrations of these compounds is crucial to ensuring consumer safety.

Effect of Different Yeast Strains on Biogenic Amines, Volatile Compounds and Sensory Profile of Beer

Nowadays, there are many sorts of beer, however, some of them, despite the good sensory and other quality indicators, could contain high concentrations of undesirable compounds, such biogenic amines (BA). The yeast strain (YS), used for fermentation, can cause desirable as well as undesirable changes in beer. The aim of this study was to evaluate the contribution of different YS (A-Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. diastaticus, B-Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. bayanus, C-Brettanomyces claussenii) on the main quality parameters of beer. In addition, the BA concentration and the volatile compounds (VC, measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry) and their relation with beer overall acceptability (OA, evaluated by 20 trained judges) and emotions induced for consumers were analysed. The YS was a significant factor on alcohol formation in beer (p = 0.0001). The highest colour intensity was shown by C beer (10.2 EBC), and the latter beer showed the lowest OA. All of the beer samples induced the highest intensity of the emotion “neutral”, and the main VC of the beer were 3-methyl-1-butanol; L-α-terpineol; hexanoic acid 3-methylbutyl ester; and n-capric acid isobutyl ester. The highest total BAs content was found in beer fermented with C. Finally, all of the tested YS are suitable for beer production, however, taking into consideration the safety aspect of the beer, it should be mentioned that the highest concentration of BAs was found in beer fermented with C strain.

Derivatization, an Applicable Asset for Conventional HPLC Systems without MS Detection in Food and Miscellaneous Analysis

One of the most valuable practices for analyzing not-so-analytical-friendly analytes in complex, heterogenous matrices is derivatization. Availability of numerous derivatizing reagents (DRs) makes the modification of analyte more exploitable in terms of an analytical perspective. A wide array of derivatization techniques like pre or post-column, in-situ, enzymatic, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, photochemical derivatization has added much-needed methodological strength in analyzing intricate analytical matrices (food, water, and soil). In recent years, analytical chemistry has achieved greater heights through the development of new sensitive methods with simple conventional instruments like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) devoid of Mass detectors. The prompt availability of these straightforward instruments also makes it a favorable option for routine analysis in food, environmental, bioanalytical chemistry. Analyzing food, environmental or bioanalytical specimen has some of the most problematic aspects, like the low concentration of the analytes accompanied by not too suitable analytical properties. Even though conventional HPLC lacks the required sensitivity but merger with derivatization can lead to a remarkable increase in sensitivity. In recent years there has been a lot of application of diverse derivatizations to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the analyte for available instruments, resulting in notable findings. Therefore, this review describes the application of derivatization principles in the analysis of analytes in food and additional matrices using conventional HPLC instruments such as HPLC-UV, HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-FD. In this article, we will briefly review the different modes and multiple types of derivatizing reagents with their mechanisms and importance for encouraging the use of established HPLC instruments.

Brewing and the Chemical Composition of Amine-Containing Compounds in Beer: A Review

As microbreweries have flourished and craft beer brewing has expanded into a multibillion-dollar industry, the ingredients and techniques used to brew beer have changed and diversified. New brewing ingredients and techniques have led to increased concern over biogenic amines in the final product. Biogenic amine composition and concentration in beer, as well as the changes to the protein and amino acid content when adjuncts are used, have received little attention. A complex biochemical mixture, the proteins, amino acids, and biogenic amines undergo a variety of enzymatic and non-enzymatic catabolic, proteolytic, and oxidative reactions during brewing. As biogenic amines in fermented food receive increased scrutiny, evaluating knowledge gaps in the evolution of these compounds in the beer brewing process is critical.

Occurrence and Levels of Biogenic Amines in Beers Produced by Different Methods

The concentration of biogenic amines (BAs) in beer depends, among other factors, on the activity of microorganisms, in particular lactic acid bacteria. In this work an analytical method based on derivatization with tosyl chloride and high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) was used to determine 17 BAs in samples of commercially available beers, and to monitor the changes in concentration of several BAs throughout the fermentation process. In some of the analysed samples the concentration of BAs exceeded the safety threshold for consumers. During the fermentation stage of home-brewing of ale the concentration of spermine in the wort increased until the end of the stormy fermentation, to then drop below the initial concentration at the end of fermentation, and below the LOQ after refermentation. The results of the study indicate that monitoring the total content of BAs is required due to the potential risk to human health.

Magnetic Molecularly Imprinted Nano-Conjugates for Effective Extraction of Food Components-A Model Study of Tyramine Determination in Craft Beers

In this paper, magnetic molecularly imprinted nano-conjugates were synthesized to serve as selective sorbents in a model study of tyramine determination in craft beer samples. The molecularly imprinted sorbent was characterized in terms of morphology, structure, and composition. The magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction protocol was developed and combined with liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to determine tyramine. Ten samples of craft beers were analyzed using a validated method, revealing tyramine concentrations in the range between 0.303 and 126.5 mg L-1. Tyramine limits of detection and quantification were 0.033 mg L-1 and 0.075 mg L-1, respectively. Therefore, the fabricated molecularly imprinted magnetic nano-conjugates with a fast magnetic responsivity and desirable adsorption performance could be an effective tool for monitoring tyramine levels in beverages.

Simultaneous quantification of five biogenic amines based on LC-MS/MS and its application in honeybee venom from different subspecies

The use of honeybee venom in traditional medicine is increasing due to its unexpected beneficial effects in the treatment of diseases. In this study, a simple and environmentally friendly sample preparation procedure was developed to quantify five biogenic amines-histamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, dopamine, adrenaline, and noradrenaline-in honeybee venom using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The instrument and sample preparation method were optimized to achieve stable, sensitive, and accurate quantification of the five biogenic amines. The peak purities of five biogenic amines in bee venom were examined using a diode array detector to ensure that endogenous impurities will not interfere with biogenic amines during the chromatographic separation procedure. The correlation coefficient of each compound was higher than 0.998 in the range of 0.5-1000 ng/mL. The limits of detection and quantification of the developed method ranged between 0.09 and 0.17, and 0.3 and 0.59 μg/g, respectively. The average recoveries of spiked biogenic amines with different concentrations were higher than 70.95%, and the intra- and intermediate-day precisions were lower than 7.51% and 10.17%, respectively. The carry-over between each injection and the stability of the target analytes were also evaluated to ensure the effectiveness of this method. The data obtained are presented in various formats, including boxplot, heat map, and principal component analysis diagram, to visualize the differences in the biogenic amine contents of the honeybee venoms from different subspecies. This method hopes to provide the opportunity to distinguish the bee venom produced by different subspecies.

Neuroactive compounds in foods: Occurrence, mechanism and potential health effects

Neuroactive compounds are synthesized by certain plants and microorganisms by undertaking different tasks, especially as a stress response. Most common neuroactive compounds in foods are gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), serotonin, melatonin, kynurenine, kynurenic acid, dopamine, norepinephrine, histamine, tryptamine, tyramine and β-phenylethylamine. Fermented foods contain some of these compounds, which can affect human health and mood. Moreover, food processing such as roasting and malting alter amount and profile of neuroactive compounds in foods. In addition to plant-origin and microbially-formed neuroactive compounds in foods, these substances are also formed by gut microbiota, which is the most attractive subject to assess the interaction between gut microbiota and mental health. The discovery of microbiota-gut-brain axis calls for the investigation of the effects of diet on the formation of neuroactive compounds in the gut. Furthermore, probiotics and prebiotics are indispensable elements for the understanding of the food-mood relationship. The focus of this comprehensive review is to investigate the neuroactive compounds found naturally in foods or formed during fermentation. Their formation pathways in humans, plants and microorganisms, potential health effects, effects of diet on the formation of microbial metabolites including neuroactive compounds in the gut are discussed throughout this review. Furthermore, the importance of gut-brain axis, probiotics and prebiotics are discussed.

Low-temperature derivatization followed by vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction for the analysis of polyamines in Nicotiana Tabacum

Polyamines are ubiquitous polycationic molecules that play a key role in many biological processes such as nucleic acid metabolism, protein synthesis, cell growth, and nicotine synthesis precursors. This work describes a rapid, sensitive, convenient, green, and cost-effective method for the determination of polyamines in Nicotiana tabacum by ultra high performance liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection. The analytes were derivatized with 3,5-dinitrobenzoyl chloride at low temperature (about 4°C) and then extracted with vortex-assisted liquid-liquid microextraction. The experimental designs based on quarter-fractional factorial design and Doehlert design were used to screen and optimize the important factors in microextraction process. Under the optimal conditions, the method was linear over 0.05-8.00 μg/mL with an r(2) ≥ 0.992 and exhibited good repeatability and reproducibility less than 6.0 and 6.9%, respectively. The limit of detection ranged between 0.013 and 0.029 μg/g. The newly developed method was successfully employed to analyze different leaf samples of Nicotiana tabacum, among which the polyamines contents were found to be very different. Moreover, tyramine, 1,3-diaminopropane, homospermidine, and canavalmine were tentatively identified with the electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. To our knowledge, this is the first report of identification of canavalmine in Nicotiana Tabacum.

Occurrence of biogenic amines in beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum)

Because several groups of microorganisms are able to decarboxylate amino acids, the presence of biogenic amines (BA) can be seen as an index of the microbiological quality of the brewing process. BAs were quantified for the first time in the intermediate products and craft beers produced with malted organic Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) in a small size brewery in order to assess the possible presence of critical control points related to biological hazard in the brewing process. BA levels in beers produced exclusively from malted organic Emmer wheat were between 15.4 and 25.2 mg l(-1) in the samples of light beer (Lt) and between 8.9 and 15.3 mg l(-1) in double malt beers (DM) ready for consumption (the beers stored for 90 days at 1-2°C). Cadaverine and tyramine were the main BAs in the Lt and DM beers, respectively. Increased concentrations of BAs seemed to be more related to the heat treatment of the processing product during mashing and wort boiling, rather than to the fermentation process. Much lower concentrations were found in finished beers obtained from 50% malted organic Emmer wheat and 50% malted barley (up to 3.2 mg l(-1)) or from 30% malted Emmer wheat (up to 8.3 mg l(-1)). Thus, Emmer wheat malt can be a useful alternative to wheat and spelt for the production of beer with a limited content of BA, if the processing technology is kept under control.

N-hydroxysuccinimidyl p-methoxybenzoate as suitable derivative reagent for isotopic dilution assay of biogenic amines in food

We present a simple methodology for the simultaneous identification and determination of biogenic amines in food matrices, based on the use of a stable isotope-coded derivatization and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The tagging reagent is N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester of d(0)/d(4) -4-methoxybenzoic acid (d(0)/d(4) -4-MBA-OSu) which mainly functionalizes primary amines. The identification and structural characterization of tagged biogenic amines were exploited by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS. Multiple-reaction monitoring has been applied in the assay of biogenic amines in different foodstuffs, providing a method whose reliability is confirmed by the values of accuracy (12%) and by the calculated analytical parameters.

Simultaneous determination of glutathione, cysteine, homocysteine, and cysteinylglycine in biological fluids by ion-pairing high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with precolumn derivatization

Biologically active low-molecular-mass thiols, mainly including glutathione (GSH), cysteine (Cys), homocysteine (Hcy), and cysteinylglycine (Cys-Gly), are important physiological components in biological fluids, and their analytical methods have gained continuous attention over recent years. We developed and validated a novel HPLC method for the quantification of GSH, Cys, Hcy, and Cys-Gly in human plasma, urine, and saliva using 4-chloro-3,5-dinitrobenzotrifluoride as the derivatization reagent. Analyses were linear from 0.15 to 500 μM with the coefficient regression range of 0.9987-0.9994. Detection limits ranged from 0.04 to 0.08 μM (S/N=3). The developed method was applied to quantification of four thiols in human biological fluids collected from five donors with the concentration range of 2.50-124.25 μM, 0-72.81 μM, and 0-4.25 μM for plasma, urine, and saliva, respectively. The present method seemed to be an attractive choice for the determination of thiols in plasma, urine, and saliva.

Health effects and occurrence of dietary polyamines: a review for the period 2005-mid 2013

This review continues a previous one (Kalač & Krausová, 2005). Dietary polyamines spermidine and spermine participate in an array of physiological roles with both favourable and injurious effects on human health. Dieticians thus need plausible information on their content in various foods. The data on the polyamine contents in raw food materials increased considerably during the reviewed period, while information on their changes during processing and storage have yet been fragmentary and inconsistent. Spermidine and spermine originate mainly from raw materials. Their high contents are typical particularly for inner organs and meat of warm-blooded animals, soybean and fermented soybean products and some mushroom species. Generally, polyamine contents range widely within the individual food items.

Detection of histamine in beer by nano extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry

In this study, rapid quantitative detection of histamine in beer was achieved by using nano extractive electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (nano EESI-MS) coupling with standard addition method. Based on the MS(2) experiment, histamine concentrations in three beer samples were determined to be 1.10 ± 0.12 µg/ml, 0.81 ± 0.09 µg/ml and 0.79 ± 0.09 µg/ml. The limit of detection for this method was calculated to be 0.02 µg/ml. These results show that this novel method can be used for direct, rapid and sensitive detection of histamine in beer without any tedious sample pretreatment.

A review of the liquid chromatographic methods for the determination of biogenic amines in foods

Biogenic amines (BAs) are biologically active molecules which have aliphatic (putrescine, cadaverine, spermine, spermidine), aromatic (tyramine, phenylethylamine) or heterocyclic (histamine, tryptamine) structures. They can be detected in raw and processed foods which are formed and degraded through several pathways during the metabolic processes of animals, plants and microorganisms. The identification and quantitation procedures of BAs in food samples are very important, because BAs are considered as the indicators of food quality and freshness. The determination of BAs are commonly achieved by separation techniques such as high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), gas chromatography (GC) and capillary electrophoresis (CE). In this article, analysis of BAs in foods were reviewed from 2007 to present.

Analysis of Some Biogenic Amines by Micellar Liquid Chromatography

Micellar liquid chromatography (MLC) with the use of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine some physicochemical parameters of six biogenic amines: adrenaline, dopamine, octopamine, histamine, 2-phenylethylamine, and tyramine. In this paper, an influence of surfactant’s concentration and pH of the micellar mobile phase on the retention of the tested substances was examined. To determine the influence of surfactant’s concentration on the retention of the tested amines, buffered solutions (at pH 7.4) of ionic surfactant—sodium dodecyl sulfate SDS (at different concentrations) with acetonitrile as an organic modifier (0.8/0.2 v/v) were used as the micellar mobile phases. To determine the influence of pH of the micellar mobile phase on the retention, mobile phases contained buffered solutions (at different pH values) of sodium dodecyl sulfate SDS (at 0.1 M) with acetonitrile (0.8/0.2 v/v). The inverse of value of retention factor () versus concentration of micelles () relationships were examined. Other physicochemical parameters of solutes such as an association constant analyte—micelle ()—and partition coefficient of analyte between stationary phase and water (hydrophobicity descriptor) () were determined by the use of Foley’s equation.