Derivatization strategies for the determination of biogenic amines in wines by chromatographic and electrophoretic techniques

High performance liquid chromatography coupled with post - Column derivatization methods in food analysis: Chemistries and applications in the last two decades

High performance liquid chromatography coupled with post-column derivatization is used for increasing the sensitivity and selectivity of the desirable analytes after the chromatographic separation. The transformation of the analytes can be conducted through the addition of a suitable reagent in the eluted stream or the ultraviolet irradiation of the eluted analytes, forming detectable derivatives for ultraviolet or fluorescence detectors. This review focuses on the developed methods using high performance liquid chromatography coupled with post-column derivatization for the determination of substances in food samples during the last two decades. The significance of the determination of each analyte in foods and the existing guidelines in each case are discussed. Preparation of the samples and the analytical methods are commented. For each analyte, official methods and commercially available systems and reagents are mentioned, as well.

The function of sphingolipids in different pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease: A comprehensive review

Sphingolipids (SPLs) represent a highly diverse and structurally complex lipid class. The discussion of SPL metabolism-related issues is of importance in understanding the neuropathological progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD is characterized by the accumulation of extracellular deposits of the amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) and intraneuronal aggregates of the microtubule-associated protein tau. Critical roles of Aβ oligomer deposited and ganglioside GM1 could be formed as "seed" from insoluble GAβ polymer in initiating the pathogenic process, while tau might also mediate SPLs and their toxicity. The interaction between ceramide and α-Synuclein (α-Syn) accelerates the aggregation of ferroptosis and exacerbates the pathogenesis of AD. For instance, reducing the levels of SPLs can mitigate α-Syn accumulation and inhibit AD progression. Meanwhile, loss of SPLs may inhibit the expression of APOE4 and confer protection against AD, while the loss of APOE4 expression also disrupts SPLs homeostasis. Moreover, the heightened activation of sphingomyelinase promotes the ferroptosis signaling pathway, leading to exacerbated AD symptoms. Ferroptosis plays a vital role in the pathological progression of AD by influencing Aβ, tau, APOE, and α-Syn. Conversely, the development of AD also exacerbates the manifestation of ferroptosis and SPLs. We are compiling the emerging techniques (Derivatization and IM-MS) of sphingolipidomics, to overcome the challenges of AD diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we examined the intricate neuro-mechanistic interactions between SPLs and Aβ, tau, α-Syn, APOE, and ferroptosis, mediating the onset of AD. Furthermore, our findings highlight the potential of targeting SPLs as underexplored avenue for devising innovative therapeutic strategies against AD.

The Selection of the Best Derivatization Reagents for the Determination of Polyamines in Home-Made Wine Samples

The procedures of putrescine, spermine, spermidine, and cadaverine derivatization using 2-chloro-1,3-dinitro-5-(trifluoromethyl)benzene, 1-fluoro-2-nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl) benzene, and 3,5-bis-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl isothiocyanate for chromatographic determination in home-made wine samples are compared in the present study. The procedures discussed were compared regarding simplicity, linearity, precision, and accuracy. The polyamines derivatives were isolated and characterized by X-ray crystallography and ¹H, ¹³C, and ¹⁹F NMR spectroscopy. The obtained structures of aliphatic amines showed that all amino groups, four in spermine, two in putrescine and cadaverine, and three in spermidine, regardless of the applied reagent, were substituted. The applicability of the described procedures was tested during the chromatographic analysis of the compounds' content in home-made wines. For this purpose, a simple and environmentally friendly sample preparation procedure was developed. The obtained results present the derivatization of polyamines with 1-fluoro-2-nitro-4-(trifluoromethyl)benzene as a better choice for the determination of these compounds in food samples.

The Development of an Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Method for Biogenic Amines in Fish Samples

Biogenic amines (BAs) are a group of substances that are formed from amino acids by decarboxylation or amination and transamination of aldehydes and ketones. They may have either an aliphatic, aromatic, or heterocyclic structure. Their quantity determines their effects and optimum amounts are essential for physiological functions, but excess BAs causes various toxic effects throughout the human body. In our study, to rapidly determine 14 BAs (histamine, tyramine, dopamine, tryptamine, serotonin, putrescine, spermine, spermidine, octopamine, benzylamine, 1-Phenylethanamine, cadaverine, 2-Phenethylamine, and agmatine) in real fish samples, an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method was established. The fish sample was extracted by acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid and stable biogenic amine derivatives could be obtained by benzoyl chloride derivatization with a shorter reaction time. The method showed good linearity with a linear range of 3-4 orders of magnitude and regression coefficients ranging from 0.9961 to 0.9999. The calculated LODs ranged from 0.1 to 20 nM and the LOQs ranged from 0.3 to 60 nM. Satisfactory recovery was obtained from 84.6% to 119.3%. The proposed method was employed to determine the concentration levels of biogenic amine derivatives in different fish. The results indicated that this method was suitable for the analysis of biogenic amines.

Simultaneous Determination of Amino Acids and Biogenic Amines by Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Mass Spectrometry for Assessing Wine Quality

Biogenic amines (BAs) and free amino acids (AAs) are low-molecular nitrogenous compounds occurring in a wide range of foodstuffs, found in increased amount in different fermented foods, seafood, and wines. This study deals with the development of an analytical method based on liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry with precolumn derivatization with dansyl chloride for the determination of BAs and AAs in musts, wines, and sparkling wines. The resulting compositional profiles have been exploited as potential descriptors of quality and other oenological issues using chemometric methods including principal component analysis (PCA) and partial analysis of least squares-discriminants (PLS-DA). Proline is the most abundant compound, and other remarkable species are lysine, ethanolamine, tyramine, histamine, and putrescine. Fermented samples (wines and sparkling wines) are much richer in both BAs and free AAs than the initial musts. Significant differences have also been noticed in the quality, as the best products display, in general, lower levels. The dissimilarities in the content of the analytes between the two grape varieties studied (pinot noir and xarel·lo) and those dealing with quality aspects have made it possible to establish a tree to classify the samples based on these two features with excellent classification rates.

A combination of a graphene quantum dots-cationic red dye donor-acceptor pair and cucurbit[7]uril as a supramolecular sensor for ultrasensitive detection of cancer biomarkers spermine and spermidine

In a unique approach, the combination of a donor-acceptor pair of hydroxy graphene quantum dots (GQDs-OH) and a red-emissive donor-two-acceptor (D-2-A) type dye with pyridinium units (BPBP) and the well-known host cucurbit[7]uril (CB[7]) has been exploited as a supramolecular sensing assembly for the detection of cancer biomarkers spermine and spermidine in aqueous media at the sub-ppb level based on the affinity-driven exchange of guests from the CB[7] portal. In the binary conjugate, green fluorescent GQDs-OH transfers energy to trigger the emission of the dye BPBP and itself remains in the turn-off state. CB[7] withdraws the dye from the surface of GQDs-OH by strong host-guest interactions with its portal, making GQDs-OH fluoresce again to produce a ratiometric response. In the presence of spermine (SP) or spermidine (SPD), their strong affinity with CB[7] forces the ejection of the fluorophore to settle on the GQDs-OH surface, and the strong green emission of GQDs-OH turns off to device a supramolecular sensor for the detection of SP/SPD. The DFT studies revealed interesting excited-state charge-transfer conjugate formation between BPBP and GQDs leading to turn-on emission of the dye, and further supported the stronger binding modes of BPBP-CB[7], indicating the retrieval of the emission of GQDs. The assembly-disassembly based sensing mechanism was also established by Job's plot analysis, particle size analysis, zeta potential, time-resolved spectroscopy, ITC studies, microscopic studies, etc. The supramolecular sensing assembly is highly selective to SP and SPD, and showed nominal interference from other biogenic amines, amino acids, various metal ions, and anions. The limits of detection (LODs) were 0.1 ppb and 0.9 ppb for spermine and spermidine, respectively. The potential for the real-world application of this sensing assembly was demonstrated by spiking SP and SPD in human urine and blood serum with a high %recovery.

Analytical strategies for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products

Biogenic amines (BA) are mainly produced by the decarboxylation of amino acids by enzymes from microorganisms that emerge during food fermentation or due to incorrectly applied preservation processes. The presence of these compounds in food can lead to a series of negative effects on human health. To prevent the ingestion of high amounts of BA, their concentration in certain foods needs to be controlled. Although maximum legal levels have not yet been established for dairy products, potential adverse effects have given rise to a substantial number of analytical and microbiological studies: they report concentrations ranging from a few mg/kg to several g/kg. This article provides an overview of the analytical methods for the determination of biogenic amines in dairy products, with particular focus on the most recent and/or most promising advances in this field. We not only provide a summary of analytical techniques but also list the required sample pretreatments. Since high performance liquid chromatography with derivatization is the most widely used method, we describe it in greater detail, including a comparison of derivatizing agents. Further alternative techniques for the determination of BA are likewise described. The use of biosensors for BA in dairy products is emerging, and current results are promising; this paper thus also features a section on the subject. This review can serve as a helpful guideline for choosing the best option to determine BA in dairy products, especially for beginners in the field.

Derivatization, an Applicable Asset for Conventional HPLC Systems without MS Detection in Food and Miscellaneous Analysis

One of the most valuable practices for analyzing not-so-analytical-friendly analytes in complex, heterogenous matrices is derivatization. Availability of numerous derivatizing reagents (DRs) makes the modification of analyte more exploitable in terms of an analytical perspective. A wide array of derivatization techniques like pre or post-column, in-situ, enzymatic, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, photochemical derivatization has added much-needed methodological strength in analyzing intricate analytical matrices (food, water, and soil). In recent years, analytical chemistry has achieved greater heights through the development of new sensitive methods with simple conventional instruments like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) devoid of Mass detectors. The prompt availability of these straightforward instruments also makes it a favorable option for routine analysis in food, environmental, bioanalytical chemistry. Analyzing food, environmental or bioanalytical specimen has some of the most problematic aspects, like the low concentration of the analytes accompanied by not too suitable analytical properties. Even though conventional HPLC lacks the required sensitivity but merger with derivatization can lead to a remarkable increase in sensitivity. In recent years there has been a lot of application of diverse derivatizations to increase the sensitivity and selectivity of the analyte for available instruments, resulting in notable findings. Therefore, this review describes the application of derivatization principles in the analysis of analytes in food and additional matrices using conventional HPLC instruments such as HPLC-UV, HPLC-DAD, and HPLC-FD. In this article, we will briefly review the different modes and multiple types of derivatizing reagents with their mechanisms and importance for encouraging the use of established HPLC instruments.

Recent Applications of Derivatization Techniques for Pharmaceutical and Bioanalytical Analysis through High-performance Liquid Chromatography

Background:

Derivatization of analytes is a quite convenient practice from an analytical perspective. Its vast prevalence is accounted by the availability of distinct reagents, primarily pragmatic for obtaining desired modifications in an analyte structure. Another reason for its handiness is typically to overcome limitations such as lack of sensitive methodology or instrumentation.The past decades have witnessed various new derivatization techniques including in-situ, enzymatic, ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, and photochemical derivatization which have gain popularity recently.

Methods:

The online literature available on the utilization of derivatization as prominent analytical tools in recent years with typical advancements is reviewed. The illustrations of the analytical condition together with the structures of different derivatizing reagents (DRs) are provided to acknowledge the vast capability of derivatization to resolve analytical problems.

Results:

The derivatization techniques have enabled analytical chemists throughout the globe to develop an enhanced sensitivity method with the simplest of the instrument like High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC). The HPLC, compared to more sensitive Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometer, is readily available and can be readily utilized for routine analysis in fields of pharmaceuticals, bioanalysis, food safety, and environmental contamination. A troublesome aspect of these fields is the presence of a complex matrix with trace concentrations for analyses. Liquid chromatographic methods devoid of MS detectors do not have the desired sensitivity for this. A possible solution for overcoming this is to couple HPLC with derivatization to enable the possibility of detecting trace analytes with a less expensive instrument. Running cost, enhanced sensitivity, low time consumption, and overcoming the inherent problems of analyte are critical parameters for which HPLC is quite useful in high throughput analysis.

Conclusion:

The review critically highlights various kinds of derivatization applications in different fields of analytical chemistry. The information primarily focuses on pharmaceutical and bioanalytical applications in recent years. The various modes, types, and derivatizing reagents with brief mechanisms have been ascribed briefly Additionally, the importance of HPLC coupled to fluorescence and UV detection is presented as an overview through examples accompanied by their analytical conditions.

Oenological Processes and Product Qualities in the Elaboration of Sparkling Wines Determine the Biogenic Amine Content

The biogenic amine (BA) content in wines is dependent on the fermentation processes and other oenological practices, as well as on grape quality. These compounds can participate in different cellular functions in humans; however, the intake of high amounts can provoke some toxicological effects. For that reason, controlling the evolution of biogenic amines in wine production processes is of extreme importance. This work aims to assess the occurrence of biogenic amines in sparkling wines and related samples, including musts, base wines, stabilized wines, and three-month and seven-month aged sparkling wines obtained from Pinot Noir and Xarel lo grape varieties. The determination of BA content relies on liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC–FLD) with precolumn derivatization of analytes with dansyl chloride. The analysis has shown that putrescine is the most abundant amine in these types of samples. Ethanolamine, tyramine, spermine, and histamine concentrations are also remarkable. Principal component analysis has been applied to try to extract featured information concerning overall patterns dealing with wine production steps and qualities. Interesting conclusions have been drawn on BA formation depending on different factors. BA concentrations are quite low in must but rise, especially after the first alcoholic fermentation. Moreover, BA levels are much lower in the range of products elaborated with grapes of the best qualities while they significantly increase when using grapes of lower qualities. The results obtained pointed out the analytical potential of using BAs to control the quality of wine and its production processes, thus providing valuable information for both wineries and consumers.

A comparative analysis of derivatization strategies for the determination of biogenic amines in sausage and cheese by HPLC

The six biogenic amines in sausage and cheese were analyzed by HPLC with UV detection after off-line derivatization with dansyl chloride, 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl chloride, benzoyl chloride and dabsyl chloride, respectively. The results showed that both the off-line 9-fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl and dabsyl derivatization were not suitable for HPLC analysis of biogenic amines when batch injection was used because the derivatives were instable, whereas both the off-line dansyl and benzoyl derivatization were suitable for HPLC analysis of biogenic amines when batch injection was used, but the latter needed to maintain the derivatives at 4 °C to ensure that benzoylated tyramine was not degraded when waiting for the analysis. The off-line dansyl derivatization had an obvious advantage in the analysis of biogenic amines in sausage and cheese samples by HPLC combined with batch injection because the method has a wider linear range and higher sensitivity, accuracy, precision and stability of the derivatives.

Accumulation of Biogenic Amines in Wine: Role of Alcoholic and Malolactic Fermentation

Biogenic amines (BAs) are detrimental to health and originate in foods mainly from decarboxylation of the corresponding amino acid by the activity of exogenous enzymes released by various microorganisms. BAs can be generated at different stages of the wine production. Some of them are formed in the vineyard and are normal constituents of grapes with amounts varying with variety, soil type and composition, fertilization and climatic conditions during growth and degree of maturation. BAs can be also formed by the yeasts during the alcoholic fermentation (AF), as well as by the action of bacteria involved in the malolactic fermentation (MLF). As aminogenesis is a complex and multifactorial phenomenon, the studies carried out to identify the main vinification stage of BAs production yielded contradictory results. In particular, there is not a general consensus yet on which fermentation supports mostly the accumulation of BAs in wine. In this context, the aim of the present paper deals with the most recent results related with the influence of alcoholic and malolactic fermentation parameters on BAs-producer microorganism in wine.

Separation and determination of polyurethane amine catalysts in polyether polyols by using UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS on a reversed-phase/cation-exchange mixed-mode column

A simple, selective, and accurate ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry method was established and validated for the efficient separation and quantification of polyurethane amine catalysts in polyether polyols. Amine catalysts were primarily separated in polyether polyol-based sample by solid-phase extraction, and further baseline separated on a reversed-phase/cation-exchange mixed-mode column (SiELC Primesep™ 200) using 0.1% trifluoroacetic acid/acetonitrile as a mobile phase in gradient elution mode at a flow rate of 0.2 mL/min. High-resolution quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis in electrospray ionization positive mode allowed the identification as N,N'-bis[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]urea, N-[2-(2-dimethylaminoethoxy)ethyl]-N-methyl-1,3-propanediamine, and N,N,N',N'-tetramethyldipropylenetriamine. The method was validated and presented good linearity for all the analytes in blank matrices within the concentration range of 0.20-5.0 or 0.1-2.0 μg/mL with the correlation coefficients (R² ) ranging from 0.986 to 0.997. Method recovery ranged within 81-105% at all three levels (80, 100, and 120% of the original amount) with relative standard deviations of 1.0-6.2%. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.007-0.051 μg/mL. Good precision was obtained with relative standard deviation below 3.2 and 0.72% for peak area and retention time of three amines, respectively.

Recent Advances in the Determination of Biogenic Amines in Food Samples by (U)HPLC

The determination of biogenic amines (BAs) in food products stirs increasing interest because of the implications in toxicological and food quality issues. Apart from these aspects, in recent years, the relevance of BAs because of some organoleptic and descriptive concerns has been pointed out by several researchers. This overview aims at revising recent advances in the determination of BAs in food samples based on liquid chromatography. In particular, papers published in the past five years have been commented. Special attention has been paid to the great possibilities of ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography and high-resolution mass spectrometry. With regard to applications, apart from the determination of BAs in a wide range of food matrices, novel lines of research focused on the characterization, classification, and authentication of food products based on chemometrics have also been discussed.

Pentafluorobenzyl bromide-A versatile derivatization agent in chromatography and mass spectrometry: I. Analysis of inorganic anions and organophosphates

Pentafluorobenzyl bromide (PFB-Br) is a versatile derivatization agent. It is widely used in chromatography and mass spectrometry since several decades. The bromide atom is largely the single leaving group of PFB-Br. It is substituted by wide a spectrum of nucleophiles in aqueous and non-aqueous systems to form electrically neutral, in most organic solvents soluble, generally thermally stable, volatile, strongly electron-capturing and ultraviolet light-absorbing derivatives. Because of these greatly favoured physicochemical properties, PFB-Br emerged an ideal derivatization agent for highly sensitive analysis of endogenous and exogenous substances including various inorganic and organic anions by electron capture detection or after electron-capture negative-ion chemical ionization in GC-MS. The present article attempts an appraisal of the utility of PFB-Br in analytical chemistry. It reviews and discusses papers dealing with the use of PFB-Br as the derivatization reagent in the qualitative and quantitative analysis of endogenous and exogenous inorganic anions in various biological samples, notably plasma, urine and saliva. These analytes include nitrite, nitrate, cyanide and dialkyl organophosphates. Special emphasis is given to mass spectrometry-based approaches and stable-isotope dilution techniques.

Derivatization in Capillary Electrophoresis

Capillary electrophoresis is a well-established separation technique in analytical research laboratories worldwide. Its interesting advantages make CE an efficient and potent alternative to other chromatographic techniques. However, it is also recognized that its main drawback is the relatively poor sensitivity when using optical detection. One way to overcome this limitation is to perform a derivatization reaction which is intended to provide the analyte more suitable analytical characteristics enabling a high sensitive detection. Based on the analytical step where the CE derivatization takes place, it can be classified as precapillary (before separation), in-capillary (during separation), or postcapillary (after separation). This chapter describes the application of four different derivatization protocols (in-capillary and precapillary modes) to carry out the achiral and chiral analysis of different compounds in food and biological samples with three different detection modes (UV, LIF, and MS).

N-hydroxysuccinimidyl p-methoxybenzoate as suitable derivative reagent for isotopic dilution assay of biogenic amines in food

We present a simple methodology for the simultaneous identification and determination of biogenic amines in food matrices, based on the use of a stable isotope-coded derivatization and liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The tagging reagent is N-hydroxysuccinimidyl ester of d(0)/d(4) -4-methoxybenzoic acid (d(0)/d(4) -4-MBA-OSu) which mainly functionalizes primary amines. The identification and structural characterization of tagged biogenic amines were exploited by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-mass spectrometry (MS) and MS/MS. Multiple-reaction monitoring has been applied in the assay of biogenic amines in different foodstuffs, providing a method whose reliability is confirmed by the values of accuracy (12%) and by the calculated analytical parameters.

Characterization of multiple fragmentation pathways initiated by collision-induced dissociation of multifunctional anions formed by deprotonation of 2-nitrobenzenesulfonylglycine

The correlation of anion structure with the fragmentation behavior of deprotonated nitrobenzenesulfonylamino acids was investigated using tandem mass spectrometry, isotopic labeling and computational methods. Four distinct fragmentation pathways resulting from the collision-induced dissociation (CID) of deprotonated 2-nitrobenzenesulfonylglycine (NsGly) were characterized. The unusual loss of the aryl nitro substituent as HONO was the lowest energy process. Subsequent successive losses of CO, HCN and SO2 indicated that an ortho cyclization reaction had accompanied loss of HONO. Other pathways involving rearrangement of the ionized sulfonamide group, dual bond cleavage and intramolecular nucleophilic displacement were proposed to account for the formation of phenoxide, arylsulfinate and arylsulfonamide product ions at higher collision energies. The four distinct fragmentation pathways were consistent with precursor-product relationships established by CID experiments, isotopic labeling results and the formation of analogous product ions from 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfonylglycine and the Ns derivatives of alanine and 2-aminoisobutyric acid. The computations confirmed a low barrier for ortho cyclization with loss of HONO and feasible energetics for each reaction step in the four pathways. Computations also indicated that three of the fragmentation pathways started from NsGly ionized at the carboxyl group. Overall, the pathways identified for the fragmentation of the NsGly anion differed from processes reported for anions containing a single functional group, demonstrating the importance of functional group interactions in the fragmentation pathways of multifunctional anions.

Highly sensitive and specific detection of histamine via the formation of a self-assembled magic number cluster with thymine by mass spectrometry

The self-assembled magic number cluster of thymine (T) significantly enhanced the MS signal of histamine with high specificity.