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Zhang S, Xiao H, Li N. Analysis of Host Cell Proteins in AAV Products with ProteoMiner Protein Enrichment Technology. Anal Chem 2024; 96:1890-1897. [PMID: 38262068 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Despite substantial efforts to detect host cell proteins (HCPs) in antibody drugs, information regarding HCPs in gene therapy products remains limited and has not been widely integrated into the host cell engineering or purification processes. Most methods that have successfully detected HCPs in antibody drugs are not applicable to gene therapy products, except for the ProteoMiner enrichment method. Here, we demonstrate that ProteoMiner beads effectively enrich HCPs in adeno-associated virus (AAV) products and simultaneously remove the detergent Pluronic F-68 without a loss of low-abundance HCPs. Following optimization of this technique, there was up to a 34-fold increase in the enrichment of HCPs compared to direct digestion. Moreover, the detection limit was significantly lowered with the ability to detect HCPs at levels as low as 0.1 ng/mL after ProteoMiner treatment. This approach holds promise in AAV HCP analysis and may be adaptable to other gene therapy products. The findings from this study provide valuable insights into HCPs in AAV products and may facilitate process development and host cell line optimization. The high sensitivity of this approach also facilitates detection of critical low-abundance HCPs, thereby contributing to risk assessment of their impact on the safety and quality of the AAV-based gene therapy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sisi Zhang
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6706, United States
| | - Hui Xiao
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6706, United States
| | - Ning Li
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6706, United States
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2
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Zhang S, Xiao H, Li N. Ultrasensitive method for profiling host cell proteins by coupling limited digestion to ProteoMiner technology. Anal Biochem 2022; 657:114901. [PMID: 36130653 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2022.114901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Host cell proteins (HCPs) are process-related impurities that remain in therapeutic protein -at trace levels. HCPs must be closely monitored because they may be detrimental to drug product quality. Liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is a powerful tool for detecting individual HCPs; however, HCP-derived peptides can be four to ten orders of magnitude less abundant than therapeutic protein-derived peptides in drug products, thus posing a major challenge in LC-MS detection. We previously demonstrated that low abundant HCPs can be enriched several hundreds fold through ProteoMiner. This study further improved the degree of enrichment by coupling limited digestion to ProteoMiner technology (PMLD). HCPs with low abundance were enriched 7694-fold, thus enabling detection of HCPs at concentrations as low as 0.002 ppm. A total of 850 HCPs were detected with high confidence from a NIST monoclonal antibody preparation, a number 40% higher than previously reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sisi Zhang
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY, 10591-6706, United States
| | - Hui Xiao
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY, 10591-6706, United States.
| | - Ning Li
- Analytical Chemistry, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, NY, 10591-6706, United States
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3
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Sialana F, Roumeliotis TI, Bouguenina H, Chan Wah Hak L, Wang H, Caldwell J, Collins I, Chopra R, Choudhary JS. SimPLIT: Simplified Sample Preparation for Large-Scale Isobaric Tagging Proteomics. J Proteome Res 2022; 21:1842-1856. [PMID: 35848491 PMCID: PMC9361352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.2c00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Large scale proteomic profiling of cell lines can reveal molecular signatures attributed to variable genotypes or induced perturbations, enabling proteogenomic associations and elucidation of pharmacological mechanisms of action. Although isobaric labeling has increased the throughput of proteomic analysis, the commonly used sample preparation workflows often require time-consuming steps and costly consumables, limiting their suitability for large scale studies. Here, we present a simplified and cost-effective one-pot reaction workflow in a 96-well plate format (SimPLIT) that minimizes processing steps and demonstrates improved reproducibility compared to alternative approaches. The workflow is based on a sodium deoxycholate lysis buffer and a single detergent cleanup step after peptide labeling, followed by quick off-line fractionation and MS2 analysis. We showcase the applicability of the workflow in a panel of colorectal cancer cell lines and by performing target discovery for a set of molecular glue degraders in different cell lines, in a 96-sample assay. Using this workflow, we report frequently dysregulated proteins in colorectal cancer cells and uncover cell-dependent protein degradation profiles of seven cereblon E3 ligase modulators (CRL4CRBN). Overall, SimPLIT is a robust method that can be easily implemented in any proteomics laboratory for medium-to-large scale TMT-based studies for deep profiling of cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando
J. Sialana
- Functional
Proteomics Group, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, U.K.
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Theodoros I. Roumeliotis
- Functional
Proteomics Group, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, U.K.
| | - Habib Bouguenina
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Laura Chan Wah Hak
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Hannah Wang
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - John Caldwell
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Ian Collins
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Rajesh Chopra
- Cancer
Research UK Cancer Therapeutics Unit, The
Institute of Cancer Research, London SM2 5NG, U.K.
| | - Jyoti S. Choudhary
- Functional
Proteomics Group, The Institute of Cancer Research, Chester Beatty Laboratories, London SW3 6JB, U.K.
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4
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Shahinuzzaman ADA, Chakrabarty JK, Fang Z, Smith D, Kamal AHM, Chowdhury SM. Improved in-solution trypsin digestion method for methanol-chloroform precipitated cellular proteomics sample. J Sep Sci 2020; 43:2125-2132. [PMID: 32073721 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201901273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Revised: 02/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Methanol-chloroform based protein precipitation is an essential step in many liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based cellular proteomics applications. However, re-solubilization of the total protein precipitate is difficult using regular in-solution digestion protocol. Sodium deoxycholate is reported as an efficient surfactant for re-solubilization of membrane fractions. In this study, we demonstrated an application combining methanol-chloroform based protein precipitations and deoxycholic acid assisted re-solubilization of pellets to evaluate the improvement of protein identifications in mass spectrometry-based bottom-up proteomics. We evaluated the modified method using an equal amount of Raw 264.7 mouse macrophage cell lysate. Detailed in-solution trypsin digestion studies were presented on methanol-chloroform precipitated samples with or without deoxycholic acid treatments and compared with popular sample digestion methods. A mass spectrometric analysis confirmed an 82% increase in protein identification in deoxycholic acid-treated samples compared to other established methods. Furthermore, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of an equal amount of proteins from methanol-chloroform precipitated, and methanol-chloroform/deoxycholic acid-treated macrophage cell lysate showed a 14% increase and 27% unique protein identifications. We believe this improved digestion method could be a complementary or alternative method for mammalian cell sample preparations where sodium dodecyl sulfate based lysis buffer is frequently used.
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Affiliation(s)
- A D A Shahinuzzaman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Arlington, Texas, USA
| | - Jayanta K Chakrabarty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Arlington, Texas, USA
| | - Zixiang Fang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Arlington, Texas, USA
| | - David Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Arlington, Texas, USA
| | | | - Saiful M Chowdhury
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Texas, Arlington, Texas, USA
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5
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Lau BYC, Othman A. Evaluation of sodium deoxycholate as solubilization buffer for oil palm proteomics analysis. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0221052. [PMID: 31415606 PMCID: PMC6695131 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0221052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein solubility is a critical prerequisite to any proteomics analysis. Combination of urea/thiourea and 3-[(3-cholamidopropyl)dimethylammonio]-1-propanesulfonate (CHAPS) have been routinely used to enhance protein solubilization for oil palm proteomics studies in recent years. The goals of these proteomics analysis are essentially to complement the knowledge regarding the regulation networks and mechanisms of the oil palm fatty acid biosynthesis. Through omics integration, the information is able to build a regulatory model to support efforts in improving the economic value and sustainability of palm oil in the global oil and vegetable market. Our study evaluated the utilization of sodium deoxycholate as an alternative solubilization buffer/additive to urea/thiourea and CHAPS. Efficiency of urea/thiourea/CHAPS, urea/CHAPS, urea/sodium deoxycholate and sodium deoxycholate buffers in solubilizing the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis var. Tenera) mesocarp proteins were compared. Based on the protein yields and electrophoretic profile, combination of urea/thiourea/CHAPS were shown to remain a better solubilization buffer and additive, but the differences with sodium deoxycholate buffer was insignificant. A deeper mass spectrometric and statistical analyses on the identified proteins and peptides from all the evaluated solubilization buffers revealed that sodium deoxycholate had increased the number of identified proteins from oil palm mesocarps, enriched their gene ontologies and reduced the number of carbamylated lysine residues by more than 67.0%, compared to urea/thiourea/CHAPS buffer. Although only 62.0% of the total identified proteins were shared between the urea/thiourea/CHAPS and sodium deoxycholate buffers, the importance of the remaining 38.0% proteins depends on the applications. The only observed limitations to the application of sodium deoxycholate in protein solubilization were the interference with protein quantitation and but it could be easily rectified through a 4-fold dilution. All the proteomics data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD013255. In conclusion, sodium deoxycholate is applicable in the solubilization of proteins extracted from oil palm mesocarps with higher efficiency compared to urea/thiourea/CHAPS buffer. The sodium deoxycholate buffer is more favorable for proteomics analysis due to its proven advantages over urea/thiourea/CHAPS buffer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Yii Chung Lau
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Abrizah Othman
- Malaysian Palm Oil Board, No 6, Persiaran Institusi, Bandar Baru Bangi, Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia
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6
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Pasing Y, Schniers A, Hansen T. Straightforward Protocol for Gel-Free Proteomic Analysis of Adipose Tissue. Methods Mol Biol 2017; 1788:289-296. [PMID: 28980277 DOI: 10.1007/7651_2017_82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
After conducting systematic and quantitative comparisons of different sample preparation techniques regarding their capability to efficiently and reproducibly recover proteins from biopsies, we present here our superior protocol for extracting proteins from low amounts of adipose tissue. Adipose tissue as a matrix in bottom-up proteomics is challenging due to the extremely high lipid content.The lysis buffer utilized contains the detergent sodium deoxycholate, which does not impair the activity of trypsin and therefore enables direct digestion without detergent removal steps. The resulting workflow is time saving, cost efficient, easy to perform, and it can also be applied to other hydrophobic samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Pasing
- Tromsø Endocrine Research Group, Department of Clinical Medicine, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
- Division of Internal Medicine, University Hospital of North Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Armin Schniers
- Natural Products and Medicinal Chemistry Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Terkel Hansen
- Natural Products and Medicinal Chemistry Research Group, Department of Pharmacy, UiT - The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
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Pigoni M, Wanngren J, Kuhn PH, Munro KM, Gunnersen JM, Takeshima H, Feederle R, Voytyuk I, De Strooper B, Levasseur MD, Hrupka BJ, Müller SA, Lichtenthaler SF. Seizure protein 6 and its homolog seizure 6-like protein are physiological substrates of BACE1 in neurons. Mol Neurodegener 2016; 11:67. [PMID: 27716410 PMCID: PMC5053352 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-016-0134-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 09/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The protease BACE1 (beta-site APP cleaving enzyme) is a major drug target in Alzheimer’s disease. However, BACE1 therapeutic inhibition may cause unwanted adverse effects due to its additional functions in the nervous system, such as in myelination and neuronal connectivity. Additionally, recent proteomic studies investigating BACE1 inhibition in cell lines and cultured murine neurons identified a wider range of neuronal membrane proteins as potential BACE1 substrates, including seizure protein 6 (SEZ6) and its homolog SEZ6L. Methods and results We generated antibodies against SEZ6 and SEZ6L and validated these proteins as BACE1 substrates in vitro and in vivo. Levels of the soluble, BACE1-cleaved ectodomain of both proteins (sSEZ6, sSEZ6L) were strongly reduced upon BACE1 inhibition in primary neurons and also in vivo in brains of BACE1-deficient mice. BACE1 inhibition increased neuronal surface levels of SEZ6 and SEZ6L as shown by cell surface biotinylation, demonstrating that BACE1 controls surface expression of both proteins. Moreover, mass spectrometric analysis revealed that the BACE1 cleavage site in SEZ6 is located in close proximity to the membrane, similar to the corresponding cleavage site in SEZ6L. Finally, an improved method was developed for the proteomic analysis of murine cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and was applied to CSF from BACE-deficient mice. Hereby, SEZ6 and SEZ6L were validated as BACE1 substrates in vivo by strongly reduced levels in the CSF of BACE1-deficient mice. Conclusions This study demonstrates that SEZ6 and SEZ6L are physiological BACE1 substrates in the murine brain and suggests that sSEZ6 and sSEZ6L levels in CSF are suitable markers to monitor BACE1 inhibition in mice. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13024-016-0134-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Pigoni
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Johanna Wanngren
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Peer-Hendrik Kuhn
- Neuroproteomics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Advanced Study, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Pathology und Pathological Anatomy, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Kathryn M Munro
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jenny M Gunnersen
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hiroshi Takeshima
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School and Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Regina Feederle
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Monoclonal Antibody Research Group, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Iryna Voytyuk
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart De Strooper
- VIB Center for the Biology of Disease, Leuven, Belgium.,Center for Human Genetics, and Leuven Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases (LIND), University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium.,Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK
| | | | - Brian J Hrupka
- Department of Neuroscience, Janssen Pharmaceutica NV, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Stephan A Müller
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany.,Neuroproteomics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan F Lichtenthaler
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Munich, Germany. .,Neuroproteomics, Klinikum rechts der Isar, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany. .,Institute for Advanced Study, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany. .,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany.
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8
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Chandler KB, Costello CE. Glycomics and glycoproteomics of membrane proteins and cell-surface receptors: Present trends and future opportunities. Electrophoresis 2016; 37:1407-19. [PMID: 26872045 PMCID: PMC4889498 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Revised: 02/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Membrane proteins mediate cell-cell interactions and adhesion, the transfer of ions and metabolites, and the transmission of signals from the extracellular environment to the cell interior. The extracellular domains of most cell membrane proteins are glycosylated, often at multiple sites. There is a growing awareness that glycosylation impacts the structure, interaction, and function of membrane proteins. The application of glycoproteomics and glycomics methods to membrane proteins has great potential. However, challenges also arise from the unique physical properties of membrane proteins. Successful analytical workflows must be developed and disseminated to advance functional glycoproteomics and glycomics studies of membrane proteins. This review explores the opportunities and challenges related to glycomic and glycoproteomic analysis of membrane proteins, including discussion of sample preparation, enrichment, and MS/MS analyses, with a focus on recent successful workflows for analysis of N- and O-linked glycosylation of mammalian membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Brown Chandler
- Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Catherine E Costello
- Center for Biomedical Mass Spectrometry, Department of Biochemistry, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
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Mayne J, Ning Z, Zhang X, Starr AE, Chen R, Deeke S, Chiang CK, Xu B, Wen M, Cheng K, Seebun D, Star A, Moore JI, Figeys D. Bottom-Up Proteomics (2013-2015): Keeping up in the Era of Systems Biology. Anal Chem 2015; 88:95-121. [PMID: 26558748 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b04230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Janice Mayne
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Zhibin Ning
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Xu Zhang
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Amanda E Starr
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Rui Chen
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Shelley Deeke
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Cheng-Kang Chiang
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Bo Xu
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Ming Wen
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Kai Cheng
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Deeptee Seebun
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Alexandra Star
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Jasmine I Moore
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
| | - Daniel Figeys
- Ottawa Institute of Systems Biology, Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Ottawa , 451 Smyth Rd., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada , K1H8M5
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