Determination of American ginseng saponins and their metabolites in human plasma, urine and feces samples by liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

The mysteries of pharmacokinetics and in vivo metabolism of Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz: A new perspective from MSOP method

The pharmacological effects of flavonoids in Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz against inflammation, bacterial, and oxidation have been well-documented. Additionally, it is commonly consumed as tea. However, the in vivo mechanism of its main compounds has not been well elucidated. In this study, a highly selective and sensitive UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS method combined with Mass Spectrum-based Orthogonal Projection (MSOP) theory and four-step analytical strategy was established and validated to identify metabolites in rats following oral administration Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz extract. Furthermore, a sensitive LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the first time to analyze the pharmacokinetics of ten main flavonoids in rats. Notably, a total of 47 metabolites were identified in blood, bile, urine, and feces samples. The maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) values for oroxin A, oroxin B, baicalin, chrysin, baicalein, scutellarein, apigenin, quercetin oroxylin A and isorhamnetin were 2945.1 ± 11.23 ng/mL, 3123.9 ± 16.37 ng/mL, 130.40 ± 27.52 ng/mL, 117.20 ± 28.54 ng/mL, 64.12 ± 19.33 ng/mL, 97.22 ± 24.27 ng/mL, 145.22 ± 29.92 ng/mL, 45.19 ± 18.84 ng/mL, 67.32 ± 15.78 ng/mL and 128.44 ± 26.42 ng/mL. A double peak was observed in the drug-time curve of apigenin, due to enterohepatic recirculation. This study demonstrated that MSOP method provided more technical support for the identification of flavonoid metabolites in complex system than traditional methods.

A systematic review of ginsenoside biosynthesis, spatiotemporal distribution, and response to biotic and abiotic factors in American ginseng

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) has gained recognition as a medicinal and functional food homologous product with several pharmaceutical, nutritional, and industrial applications. However, the key regulators involved in ginsenoside biosynthesis, the spatiotemporal distribution characteristics of ginsenosides, and factors influencing ginsenosides are largely unknown, which make it challenging to enhance the quality and chemical extraction processes of the cultivated American ginseng. This review presents an overview of the pharmacological effects, biosynthesis and spatiotemporal distribution of ginsenosides, with emphasis on the impacts of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides in American ginseng. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated that American ginseng has neuroprotective, cardioprotective, antitumor, antidiabetic, and anti-obesity effects. Additionally, most genes involved in the upregulation of ginsenoside biosynthesis have been identified, while downstream regulators (OSCs, CYP450, and UGTs) require further investigation. Futhermore, limited knowledge exists regarding the molecular mechanisms of the impact of biotic and abiotic factors on ginsenosides. Notably, the nonmedicinal parts of American ginseng, particularly its flowers, fibrous roots, and leaves, exhibit higher ginsenoside content than its main roots and account for a considerable amount of weight in the whole plant, representing promising resources for ginsenosides. Herein, the prospects of molecular breeding and metabolic engineering based on multi-omics to improve the unstable quality of cultivated American ginseng and the shortage of ginsenosides are proposed. This review highlights the gaps in the current research on American ginseng and proposes solutions to address these limitations, providing a guide for future investigations into American ginseng ginsenosides.

Banxia Xiexin decoction: A review on phytochemical, pharmacological, clinical and pharmacokinetic investigations

Banxia Xiexin decoction (BXD), a famous traditional Chinese prescription constituted by Pinelliae Rhizoma, Zingiberis Rhizoma, Scutellariae Radix, Coptidis Rhizoma, Ginseng Radix et Rhizoma, Jujubae Fructus and Glycyrrhizae Radix et Rhizoma Praeparata Cum Mell, has notable characteristics of acrid-opening, bitter down-bearing and sweet-tonification, interfering with tumors, gastrointestinal diseases, central nervous system diseases and much more. Based on the wide clinical applications, current investigations of BXD focused on several aspects: chemical analysis to explore the underlying substrates responsible for the therapeutic effects; basic studies on pharmacological actions of the whole prescription or of those representative ingredients to demonstrate the intriguing molecular targets for specific pathological processes; pharmacokinetic feature studies of single or all components of BXD to reveal the chemical basis and synergistic actions contributing to the pharmacological and clinically therapeutic effects. In this review, we summarized the main achievements of phytochemical, pharmacological, clinical and pharmacokinetic profiles of BXD and its herbal or pharmacologically active chemicals, as well as discussions of our understanding which further reveals the significance of BXD clinically.

Screening anti-fatigue components of American ginseng saponin by analyzing spectrum-effect relationship coupled with UPLC-Q-TOF-MS

Background

American ginseng has an obvious anti-fatigue effect, but the effective material basis is still unclear. The spectrum-effect relationship is a scientific method that studies the correlations between chemical spectra and pharmacological effect.

Objective

To reveal the real bioactive compounds in American ginseng saponin (AGS) based on a study of the underlying correlations between these compounds' occurrence in rat serum after their intake of AGS and the anti-fatigue effect of AGS.

Methods

We utilized ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) with quadrupole and time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOF-MS) to analyze the extract of AGS and its constituents in serum after oral administration in rats. The anti-fatigue effect of AGS in rats was measured using the time weight-bearing swimming technique, the content of blood urea nitrogen, hepatic glycogen, and blood lactic acid. The relationship between the peak area values in fingerprints from rat serum and pharmacodynamic parameters of AGS was established using correlation analysis with partial least square regression (PLSR) method and gray correlation method.

Results

We detected and identified 22 compounds from extract, and 8 prototype components from serum. Through PLSR and gray correlation method, it was found that the ginsenosides Re, Rb1, and Rb2 were significantly positively related to the pharmacodynamic data.

Conclusions

Based on the spectrum-effect relationship, PLSR and gray correlation method can be used to screen for the anti-fatigue components available in AGS. Such an approach is of practical significance as it provides an effective means for exploring the material basis for the efficacy of American ginseng, particularly as an anti-fatigue agent.

A review for discovering bioactive minor saponins and biotransformative metabolites in Panax quinquefolius L

Panax quinquefolius L. has attracted extensive attention worldwide because of its prominent pharmacological properties on type 2 diabetes, cancers, central nervous system, and cardiovascular diseases. Ginsenosides are active phytochemicals of P. quinquefolius, which can be classified as propanaxdiol (PPD)-type, propanaxtriol (PPT)-type, oleanane-type, and ocotillol-type oligo-glycosides depending on the skeleton of aglycone. Recently, advanced analytical and isolated methods including ultra-performance liquid chromatography tandem with mass detector, preparative high-performance liquid chromatography, and high speed counter-current chromatography have been used to isolate and identify minor components in P. quinquefolius, which accelerates the clarification of the material basis. However, the poor bioavailability and undetermined bio-metabolism of most saponins have greatly hindered both the development of medicines and the identification of their real active constituents. Thus, it is essential to consider the bio-metabolism of constituents before and after absorption. In this review, we described the structures of minor ginsenosides in P. quinquefolius, including naturally occurring protype compounds and their in vivo metabolites. The preclinical and clinical pharmacological studies of the ginsenosides in the past few years were also summarized. The review will promote the reacquaint of minor saponins on the growing appreciation of their biological role in P. quinquefolius.

Medicinal Plants and Their Impact on the Gut Microbiome in Mental Health: A Systematic Review

Background: Various neurocognitive and mental health-related conditions have been associated with the gut microbiome, implicating a microbiome–gut–brain axis (MGBA). The aim of this systematic review was to identify, categorize, and review clinical evidence supporting medicinal plants for the treatment of mental disorders and studies on their interactions with the gut microbiota. Methods: This review included medicinal plants for which clinical studies on depression, sleeping disorders, anxiety, or cognitive dysfunction as well as scientific evidence of interaction with the gut microbiome were available. The studies were reported using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement. Results: Eighty-five studies met the inclusion criteria and covered thirty mental health-related medicinal plants with data on interaction with the gut microbiome. Conclusion: Only a few studies have been specifically designed to assess how herbal preparations affect MGBA-related targets or pathways. However, many studies provide hints of a possible interaction with the MGBA, such as an increased abundance of health-beneficial microorganisms, anti-inflammatory effects, or MGBA-related pathway effects by gut microbial metabolites. Data for Panax ginseng, Schisandra chinensis, and Salvia rosmarinus indicate that the interaction of their constituents with the gut microbiota could mediate mental health benefits. Studies specifically assessing the effects on MGBA-related pathways are still required for most medicinal plants.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Analysis of Astragalus Saponins and Identification of Metabolites After Oral Administration in Rats by Ultrahigh-Performance Liquid Chromatography/Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Analysis

Astragalus mongholicus Bunge (Fabaceae) is an ancient Chinese herbal medicine, and Astragalus saponins are the main active components, which have a wide range of biological activities, such as immunomodulation, antioxidation, and neuroprotection. In this study, silver nanoparticles obtained by sodium borohydride reduction were used as the enhanced substrate to detect astragaloside I (1), astragaloside II (2), astragaloside III (3), astragaloside IV (4), isoastragaloside I (5), and isoastragaloside II (6) in the phloem, xylem, and cork by surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS). In the SERS spectrum of Astragalus slices, the characteristic peaks were observed at 562, 671, 732, 801, 836, 950, 1,026, 1,391, and 1,584 cm⁻¹, among which 950 cm⁻¹ and 1,391 cm⁻¹ were strong SERS signals. Subsequently, the metabolites of the six kinds of Astragalus saponins were identified by UPLC/ESI/Q-TOF-MS. Totally, 80, 89, and 90 metabolites were identified in rat plasma, urine, and feces, respectively. The metabolism of saponins mainly involves dehydration, deacetylation, dihydroxylation, dexylose reaction, deglycosylation, methylation, deacetylation, and glycol dehydration. Ten metabolites (1-M2, 1-M11, 2-M3, 2-M12, 3-M14, 4-M9, 5-M2, 5-M17, 6-M3, and 6-M12) were identified by comparison with reference standards. Interestingly, Astragalus saponins 1, 2, 5, and 6 were deacetylated to form astragaloside IV (4), which has been reported to have good pharmacological neuroprotective, liver protective, anticancer, and antidiabetic effects. Six kinds of active Astragalus saponins from different parts of Astragalus mongholicus were identified by SERS spectroscopy. Six kinds of active Astragalus saponins from different parts of Astragalus mongholicus were identified by SERS spectrum, and the metabolites were characterized by UPLC/ESI/Q-TOF-MS, which not only provided a new method for the identification of traditional Chinese medicine but also provided a theoretical basis for the study of the pharmacodynamic substance basis of Astragalus mongholicus saponins.

A systematic strategy integrating solid-phase extraction, full scan range splitting, mass defect filter and precursor ion list for comprehensive metabolite profiling of Danqi Tongmai tablet in rats

In vivo metabolite profiling of herbal medicines remains a challenge due to the complex chemical composition and drastic interference from biological matrix. In this study, a systematic strategy was established for comprehensive metabolite profiling of Danqi Tongmai (DQTM) tablet, a combination of salvianolic acids and notoginsenosides, in rats after oral administration. This strategy was composed of six steps. Firstly, the rat plasma and tissue samples were collected at multiple time points to increase the representativeness of samples. Secondly, different sample preparation methods were systematically investigated including protein precipitation, liquid-liquid extraction and solid-phase extraction to obtain superior extraction efficiency for both salvianolic acids and notoginsenosides. Thirdly, the MS acquisition method was optimized by splitting the full scan range into two separate segments to improve the detection capability for minor components. Fourthly, an extended polygonal mass defect filter (EP-MDF) model was constructed to filter potential metabolites of salvianolic acids and notoginsenosides, and remove large amounts of interference ions. Fifthly, ion intensity-based time point-staggered precursor ion list (IITPS-PIL) was generated to trigger more targeted MS/MS acquisition for potential metabolites at the highest concentration. Finally, the absorbed prototypes and metabolites were comprehensively characterized by reference standards and MS/MS fragmentation. The proposed strategy significantly improved the detection ability for trace prototypes and metabolites in vivo. A total of 370 components, including 94 prototypes (38 confirmed with reference standards) and 276 metabolites, were tentatively characterized in rat plasma and tissue samples after oral administration of DQTM. Collectively, this paper provided an applicable reference for comprehensive metabolite profiling of herbal medicines in complex biological samples.

Dilute-and-shoot-based direct nano-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry as screening methodology for multivitamins in dietary supplement and human urine

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, analytical screening methods for simultaneous detection of multivitamins have gained substantial attention to ensure quality and public confidence in dietary supplements. Even so, few analytical methods have been proposed for simultaneous analysis of multivitamin constituents due to the large divergence in chemical characteristics.

OBJECTIVES

In the present study, the objective was to develop a simple and rapid direct nano-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (DI-nano-ESI-MS/MS) method for targeted detection of water soluble vitamins, fat soluble vitamins, amino acids, royal jelly, ginkgo biloba, and ginseng in a dietary supplement. The applicability of dilute-and-shoot-based DI-nano-ESI-MS/MS to analyze the same tested compounds and their related metabolites in clinical samples was also examined.

METHODS

Intact urine mixed with the ionization solvent was loaded (4-μL aliquot) into a nanospray (NS) capillary of 1-μm tip diameter. The NS capillary was then fitted into an off-line ion source at a distance of 5 mm from MS aperture. The sample was directly injected by applying a voltage of 1.1 kV, producing a numerous of m/z peaks for analysis in mere minutes.

RESULTS

The DI-nano-ESI-MS/MS method successfully identified almost all dietary supplement components, as well as a plethora of component-related metabolites in clinical samples. In addition, a new merit of the proposed method for the detection of index marker and chemical contaminants as well as subspecies identification was investigated for further quality evaluation of the dietary supplement.

CONCLUSIONS

The previous findings illustrated that DI-nano-ESI-MS/MS approach can emerge as a powerful, high throughput, and promising analytical tool for screening and accurate detection of various pharmaceuticals and ingredient in dietary supplements as well as biological fluids.

Shenyan Kangfu tablet alleviates diabetic kidney disease through attenuating inflammation and modulating the gut microbiota

Inflammation plays a predominant role in the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). The Shenyan Kangfu tablet (SYKFT) is a prescription of traditional Chinese medicine for treating chronic kidney disease. However, the concrete mechanism is still unclear. According to previous clinical trial, we explored the effects and potential mechanism on DKD in db/db model supplemented with SYKFT. As a result, SYKFT reduced stimulated blood glucose and HbA1c levels, alleviated renal dysfunction, glomerular and tubular damage, and renal inflammation (TNF-α and IL-1β) in db/db mice. The primary mechanistic study illustrated that SYKFT improved renal injury mainly associated with inhibition of NF-κB in vivo and in vitro. This study further observed that SYKFT increased relative abundance of Firmicutes and decreased Bacteroidetes, showing direct correlation between representative microbiota relative abundance and renal function parameters. SYKFT effectively decreased the relative abundance of Bacteroides, and positive correlation between the relative abundance and protein expression of NF-κB, TNF-α and IL-1β predicted that anti-inflammatory activity of SYKFT was associated with modulating the gut microbiota. Therefore, we first demonstrated SYKFT alleviated DKD through regulating renal inflammatory signaling cascades and intestinal microbiota and also pointed out the role of specific gut microbiota in the development of DKD.

Identification and Analysis of Components in Yizhi Granule and Cynomolgus Monkey Plasma after Oral Administration by UPLC/ESI-Q-TOF MS and Their Protective Effects on PC12 Cells

Yizhi Granule (YZG) is a health food containing six traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). It improves memory barriers in rat experiments. Here, we describe the first fast and sensitive ultraperformance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-Q-TOF MS) method for analyzing YZG in plasma. We used this technique for studies in cynomolgus monkey plasma. By comparing retention time, MS, and MS/MS data of reference compounds, 70 compounds were detected in YZG. Of these, 63 were identified including 60 saponins, 2 flavones, and 1 methyl ester. There were 33 saponins, 1 flavone, and 1 methyl ester in the plasma. Next, to study the therapeutic properties of YZG, the neuroprotective effect of some of the absorbed components was evaluated using PC12 cell damage caused by the Aβ _25-35 model. The results showed that 9 compounds protect PC12 cells from Aβ _25-35 with cell viability (%) of 111.00 ± 8.12 (G-Rb1), 102.20 ± 4.22 (G-Rb2), 100.34 ± 6.47 (G-Rd), 102.83 ± 2.10 (G-Re), 101.68 ± 7.64 (NG-Fa), 101.19 ± 7.83 (NG-R1), 102.53 ± 0.55 (NG-R2), 106.88 ± 4.95 (gypenoside A), and 103.95 ± 4.11 (gypenoside XLIX), respectively, versus the control group (87.51 ± 6.59). These results can reveal the real pharmacodynamic basis of YZG and provide a theoretical basis for subsequent studies. It can also provide some references for the research of Alzheimer's disease.

Chemical Structures and Pharmacological Profiles of Ginseng Saponins

Ginseng is a group of cosmopolitan plants with more than a dozen species belonging to the genus Panax in the family Araliaceae that has a long history of use in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM). Among the bioactive constituents extracted from ginseng, ginseng saponins are a group of natural steroid glycosides and triterpene saponins found exclusively throughout the plant. Studies have shown that these ginseng saponins play a significant role in exerting multiple therapeutic effects. This review covers their chemical structure and classification, as well as their pharmacological activities, including their regulatory effects on immunomodulation, their anticancer effects, and their functions in the central nervous and cardiovascular systems. The general benefits of ginseng saponins for boosting physical vitality and improving quality of life are also discussed. The review concludes with fruitful directions for future research in the use of ginseng saponins as effective therapeutic agents.

Screening of anti-complement active ingredients from Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. branches and their metabolism in vivo based on UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS/MS

Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (E. ulmoides) is a kind of plant with high medicinal value, there are known as the "gold plants". Some components and contents of barks and branches from E. ulmoides are similar, the barks are mainly used as medicine, but the branches have not been systematically studied and were discarded. In this paper, five fractions extracted from E. ulmoides branches were detected by the classical anti-complement activity assay in vitro. The n-butanol fraction of E. ulmoides branches showed excellent anti-complement activities with a CH₅₀ value of 0.016 ± 0.0014 mg·mL^-1. A total of 76 compounds were identified from the n-butanol fraction, including 9 alkaloids, 18 organic acids, 22 lignans, 15 phenylethanoid glycosides and 12 other compounds. To further prove the anti-complement activity of potential active compounds, those compounds detectable in rat plasma after oral administration were tested by classical anti-complement activity assays. Genipin and pinoresinol 4-O-glucopyranoside had a certain complement inhibitory activity in the 17 potential anti-complements, their CH₅₀ values were 0.050 ± 0.0038 and 0.022 ± 0.0018 mg·mL^-1. UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS/MS was developed to profile and characterize the metabolites of genipin and pinoresinol 4-O-glucopyranoside in rat plasma. Twenty-one and seventeen metabolites were found, respectively. In summary, this study reported important clues for the further pharmacological and clinical studies of E. ulmoides branches. Meanwhile, it provided a practical strategy for rapid screening and identifying of in vivo anti-complement in traditional Chinese medicine.

American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolium L.) as a Source of Bioactive Phytochemicals with Pro-Health Properties

Panax quinquefolium L. (American Ginseng, AG) is an herb characteristic for regions of North America and Asia. Due to its beneficial properties it has been extensively investigated for decades. Nowadays, it is one of the most commonly applied medical herbs worldwide. Active compounds of AG are ginsenosides, saponins of the glycosides group that are abundant in roots, leaves, stem, and fruits of the plant. Ginsenosides are suggested to be primarily responsible for health-beneficial effects of AG. AG acts on the nervous system; it was reported to improve the cognitive function in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, display anxiolytic activity, and neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage resulting from ischemic stroke in animals, demonstrate anxiolytic activity, and induce neuroprotective effects against neuronal damage in ischemic stroke in animals. Administration of AG leads to inhibition of hypertrophy in heart failure by regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in mice as well as depletion of cardiac contractile function in rats. It also has an anti-diabetic and anti-obesity potential as it increases insulin sensitivity and inhibits formation of adipose tissue. AG displays anti-cancer effect by induction of apoptosis of cancer cells and reducing local inflammation. It exerts antimicrobial effects against several pathogenic strains of bacteria. Therefore, AG presents a high potential to induce beneficial health effects in humans and should be further explored to formulate precise nutritional recommendations, as well as to assess its value in prevention and therapy of some disorders, including cancer.

UPLC-QTOF/MS-Based Nontargeted Metabolomic Analysis of Mountain- and Garden-Cultivated Ginseng of Different Ages in Northeast China

Aiming at further systematically comparing the similarities and differences of the chemical components in ginseng of different ages, especially comparing the younger or the older and mountain-cultivated ginseng (MCG), 4, 5, 6-year-old cultivated ginseng (CG) and 12, 20-year-old MCG were chosen as the analytical samples in the present study. The combination of UPLC-QTOF-MS^E, UNIFI platform and multivariate statistical analysis were developed to profile CGs and MCGs. By the screening analysis based on UNIFI, 126 chemical components with various structural types were characterized or tentatively identified from all the CG and MCG samples for the first time. The results showed that all the CG and MCG samples had the similar chemical composition, but there were significant differences in the contents of markers. By the metabolomic analysis based on multivariate statistical analysis, it was shown that CG_{4⁻6 years}, MCG_{12 years} and MCG_{20 years} samples were obviously divided into three different groups, and a total of 17 potential age-dependent markers enabling differentiation among the three groups of samples were discovered. For differentiation from other two kinds of samples, there were four robust makers such as α-linolenic acid, 9-octadecenoic acid, linoleic acid and panaxydol for CG_{4⁻6 years}, five robust makers including ginsenoside Re₁, -Re₂, -Rs₁, malonylginsenoside Rb₂ and isomer of malonylginsenoside Rb₁ for MCG_{20 years}, and two robust makers, 24-hydroxyoleanolic acid and palmitoleic acid, for MCG_{12 years} were discovered, respectively. The proposed approach could be applied to directly distinguish MCG root ages, which is an important criterion for evaluating the quality of MCG. The results will provide the data for the further study on the chemical constituents of MCG.

Fecal metabolomic dataset of American ginseng-treated DSS mice: Correlation between ginseng enteric inflammation inhibition and its biological signatures

Although anti-inflammatory effects of American ginseng metabolites have been investigated at systemic and cellular levels, the biological signatures of ginseng microbial metabolite-induced bioactivities are still unknown. To fill this knowledge gap and to support the findings published in the companion research article entitled “American ginseng microbial metabolites attenuated DSS-induced colitis and abdominal pain” (Wang et al., 2018), we are here to provide datasets of enteric microbiome biotransformation and fecal metabolomics. For the microbiome biotransformation study, data were obtained from C57BL6 mice treated with a broad-spectrum antibiotic metronidazole. After oral administration of ginseng extract, we observed that compound K (CK) was undetectable in metronidazole-treated mouse stools but was detected in stools from vehicle-treated mice, suggesting biotransformation of CK is gut microbial dependent. In the fecal metabolomic study, three small molecules which were associated with gut inflammation were identified. In the DSS mice, the levels of lactate, linoleic acid, and malic acid increased significantly in the model group. After ginseng treatment, the expressions of these metabolites reduced significantly. Thus, the selective fecal endogenous metabolites could be used as biological signatures reflecting severity of enteric inflammation and ginseng treatment outcomes. Our results showed the enteric microbiome plays a key role for CK conversion, and the effects of CK on enteric inflammation can be demonstrated by the metabolomics data.

American ginseng microbial metabolites attenuate DSS-induced colitis and abdominal pain

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a significant public health problem in the United States. Abdominal pain is a major complaint among individuals with IBD. Successful IBD management not only controls enteric inflammation, but also reduces abdominal discomfort. Recently, increased attention has been focused on alternative strategies for IBD management. HPLC/Q-TOF-MS analysis was employed to evaluate the intestinal microbiome's biotransformation of parent American ginseng compounds into their metabolites. Using a DSS mouse model, the effects of American ginseng microbial metabolites on chemically induced colitis was investigated with disease activity index and histological assessment. Expressions of inflammatory cytokines were determined using real-time PCR and ELISA. Abdominal pain was evaluated using the von Frey filament test. After the gut microbiome's biotransformation, the major metabolites were found to be the compound K and ginsenoside Rg3. Compared with the DSS animal group, American ginseng treatment significantly attenuated experimental colitis, as supported by the histological assessment. The enteric microbiome-derived metabolites of ginseng significantly attenuated the abdominal pain. American ginseng treatment significantly reduced gut inflammation, consistent with pro-inflammatory cytokine level changes. The gut microbial metabolite compound K showed significant anti-inflammatory effects even at low concentrations, compared to its parent ginsenoside Rb1. American ginseng intestinal microbial metabolites significantly reduced chemically-induced colitis and abdominal pain, as mediated by the inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Intestinal microbial metabolism plays a critical role in American ginseng mediated colitis management.

Quantitative Analyses of the Functional Constituents in SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam

Objective

SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam are traditional Korea-medical herbs that are grown from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. In our previous studies, we found that the functional compounds in SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam were different and depended on the type and the cultivation environment of ginseng. This study aimed to profile the functional constituents in SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam.

Methods

To profile the functional aspects of the many compounds that have therapeutic activities in SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam extracts, we used liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and quadrupole orthogonal acceleration time-of-flight mass spectrometry.

Results

A total of four major compounds were detected; two of which were the natural flavonoids kaempferol and quercetin. Among others, two polyacetylene compounds, including panaxydol and panaxynol, were detected.

Conclusion

In this study, we found that panaxydol, one of the polyacetylene constituents of ginseng, is a candidate anti-cancer agent in SanYangSam and SanYangSanSam pharmacopuncture. In addition, we found that the panaxydol levels in the SanYangSanSam extract were over 30 times those in the SanYangSam extract.

Changes in intestinal microbiota affect metabolism of ginsenoside Re

Ginsenoside Re, an active ingredient in Panax ginseng, is widely used as a therapeutic and nutriment. The intestinal microbiota plays crucial roles in modulating the pharmacokinetics and pharmacological actions of ginsenoside Re. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between bacterial community variety and the metabolic profiles of ginsenoside Re. We developed two models with intestinal dysbacteriosis: a pseudo-germ-free model induced by a nonabsorbable antimicrobial mixture (ATM), and Qi-deficiency model established via over-fatigue and acute cold stress (OACS). First, the bacterial community structures in control, ATM and OACS rats were compared via 16S ribosomal RNA amplicon sequencing. Then, the gut microbial metabolism of ginsenoside Re was assessed qualitatively and quantitatively in the three groups by UPLC-Q-TOF/MS and HPLC-TQ-MS, respectively. Ten metabolites of ginsenoside Re were detected and tentatively identified, three of which were novel. Moreover, owing to significant differences in bacterial communities, deglycosylated products, as the main metabolites of ginsenoside Re, were produced at lower levels in ATM and OACS models. Importantly, the levels of these deglycosylated metabolites correlated with alterations in Prevotella, Lactobacillus and Bacteroides populations, as well as glycosidase activities. Collectively, biotransformation of ginsenoside Re is potentially influenced by regulation of the composition of intestinal microbiota and glycosidase activities.

Effects of compound K, an enteric microbiome metabolite of ginseng, in the treatment of inflammation associated colon cancer

Ginsenoside Rb1, a major component of different ginseng species, can be bioconverted into compound K by gut microbiota, and the latter possess much stronger cancer chemopreventive potential. However, while the initiation and progression of colorectal cancer is closely associated with gut inflammation, to date, the effects of compound K on inflammation-linked cancer chemoprevention have not been reported. In the present study, liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry analysis was applied to evaluate the biotransformation of Rb1 in American ginseng by human enteric microflora. The in vitro inhibitory effects of Rb1 and compound K were compared using the HCT-116 and HT-19 human colorectal cancer cell lines by a MTS assay. Cell cycle and cell apoptosis were assayed using flow cytometry. Using ELISA, the anti-inflammatory effects of Rb1 and compound K were compared for their inhibition of interleukin-8 secretion in HT-29 cells, induced by lipopolysaccharide. The results revealed that compound K is the major intestinal microbiome metabolite of Rb1. When compared with Rb1, compound K had significantly stronger anti-proliferative effects in HCT-116 and HT-29 cell lines (P<0.01). Compound K significantly arrested HCT-116 and HT-29 cells in the G1 phase, and induced cell apoptosis (P<0.01). By contrast, Rb1 did not markedly influence the cell cycle or apoptosis. Furthermore, compound K exerted significant anti-inflammatory effects even at low concentrations (P<0.05), while Rb1 did not have any distinct effects. The data obtained from the present study demonstrated that compound K, an intestinal microbiome metabolite of Rb1, may have a potential clinical value in the prevention of inflammatory-associated colorectal cancer.

Herbal products containing Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Crataegus spp., and Panax spp.: Labeling and safety concerns

Herbs have been used from ancient times for infusion preparation based on their potential health effects. In particular, the consumption of Hibiscus sabdariffa L., Crataegus spp. and Panax spp. has been largely associated to cardiovascular benefits. In this work, the label information of 52 herbal products for infusion preparation containing the referred herbs was analyzed and discussed, taking into consideration the European Union regulation for herbal products, which intends to protect public health and harmonize the legal framework in Member States. Details about the cardiovascular-related statements and warning notifications about consumption were considered. Also, regulatory issues and possible herb-drug interactions were explored and discussed. A total of 14 of the 52 herbal products selected presented health claims/statements on the label. Hibiscus was present in the majority of the products and, in some cases, it was mentioned only in the ingredients list and not on the product front-of-pack. Despite the promising outcomes of these plants to modulate cardiovascular risk markers, consumers with some sort of cardiovascular dysfunction and/or under medication treatments should be aware to carefully analyze the labels and consult additional information related to these herbal products. Manufacturers have also a huge responsibility to inform consumers by presenting awareness statements. Lastly, health professionals must advise and alert their patients about possible interactions that could occur between the concomitant consumption of drugs and herbs. Overall, there is still a real need of additional studies and clinical trials to better understand herbs effects and establish a science-based guidance to assess their safety.

Comparative Analysis of the Rats' Gut Microbiota Composition in Animals with Different Ginsenosides Metabolizing Activity

Following oral intake of Panax ginseng, major ginsenosides are metabolized to deglycosylated ginsenosides by gut microbiota before absorption into the blood. As the composition of gut microbiota varies between individuals, metabolic activities are significantly different. We selected 6 rats with low efficiency metabolism (LEM) and 6 rats with high efficiency metabolism (HEM) from 60 rats following oral administration of Panax ginseng extract, and analyzed their gut microbiota composition using Illumina HiSeq sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene. The components of gut microbiota between the LEM and HEM groups were significantly different. Between the 2 groups, S24-7, Alcaligenaceae, and Erysipelotrichaceae occupied most OTUs of the HEM group, which was notably higher than the LEM group. Furthermore, we isolated Bifidobacterium animalis GM1 that could convert the ginsenoside Rb1 to Rd. The result implies that these specific intestinal bacteria may dominate the metabolism of Panax ginseng.

Biotransformation and metabolic profile of anemoside B4 with rat small and large intestine microflora by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry

Pulsatilla chinensis (Bunge) Regel is commonly used in Asia, and anemoside B4 (AB4) is its major saponin, with diverse pharmaceutical effects. Previous studies showed that intestinal flora plays an important role in the metabolism of herbs administered orally. In this study, the metabolic profile of AB4 with microflora in rat small and large intestines in vitro was investigated. Gut microflora was collected from different intestinal segments and anaerobically incubated with AB4 at 37°C for 24, 48, 72 and 96 h, respectively. A total of 10 metabolites were detected and identified by ultra- performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry, involving the products of oxygenation and deglycosylation reactions. Gut microflora in the large intestine generated more comprehensive metabolic pathways, which appears to be attributable to the wider range of bacterial types and numbers of bacteria. Human cancer cell lines SMMC-7721, Hela and MCF-7 were treated with metabolite pools by MTT assay, together with M6 as the greatest deglycosylation product. As a result, M6 exhibited a reduction in cell viability of SMMC-7721 with an IC₅₀ value of 22.28 ± 1.26 μg/mL. The present study provided scientific evidence for AB4 metabolism in small and large intestines, which is helpful to reveal the active forms of AB4 in vivo.