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Zhu X, Shi Z, Mao Y, Lächelt U, Huang R. Cell Membrane Perforation: Patterns, Mechanisms and Functions. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2310605. [PMID: 38344881 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202310605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
Cell membrane is crucial for the cellular activities, and any disruption to it may affect the cells. It is demonstrated that cell membrane perforation is associated with some biological processes like programmed cell death (PCD) and infection of pathogens. Specific developments make it a promising technique to perforate the cell membrane controllably and precisely. The pores on the cell membrane provide direct pathways for the entry and exit of substances, and can also cause cell death, which means reasonable utilization of cell membrane perforation is able to assist intracellular delivery, eliminate diseased or cancerous cells, and bring about other benefits. This review classifies the patterns of cell membrane perforation based on the mechanisms into 1) physical patterns, 2) biological patterns, and 3) chemical patterns, introduces the characterization methods and then summarizes the functions according to the characteristics of reversible and irreversible pores, with the aim of providing a comprehensive summary of the knowledge related to cell membrane perforation and enlightening broad applications in biomedical science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinran Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education), Huashan Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Zhifeng Shi
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ying Mao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ulrich Lächelt
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Vienna, Vienna, 1090, Austria
| | - Rongqin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Smart Drug Delivery (Ministry of Education), Huashan Hospital, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, China
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Lanza A, Kimura S, Hirono I, Yoshitake K, Kinoshita S, Asakawa S. Transcriptome analysis of Edwardsiella piscicida during intracellular infection reveals excludons are involved with the activation of a mitochondrion-like energy generation program. mBio 2024; 15:e0352623. [PMID: 38349189 PMCID: PMC10936155 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.03526-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Phylogenetic evidence suggests a shared ancestry between mitochondria and modern Proteobacteria, a phylum including several genera of intracellular pathogens. Studying these diverse pathogens, particularly during intracellular infection of their hosts, can reveal characteristics potentially representative of the mitochondrial-Proteobacterial ancestor by identifying traits shared with mitochondria. While transcriptomic approaches can provide global insights into intracellular acclimatization by pathogens, they are often limited by excess host RNAs in extracts. Here, we developed a method employing magnetic nanoparticles to enrich RNA from an intracellular Gammaproteobacterium, Edwardsiella piscicida, within zebrafish, Danio rerio, fin fibroblasts, enabling comprehensive exploration of the bacterial transcriptome. Our findings revealed that the intracellular E. piscicida transcriptome reflects a mitochondrion-like energy generation program characterized by the suppression of glycolysis and sugar transport, coupled with upregulation of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and alternative import of simple organic acids that directly flux into TCA cycle intermediates or electron transport chain donors. Additionally, genes predicted to be members of excludons, loci of gene pairs antagonistically co-regulated by overlapping antisense transcription, are significantly enriched in the set of all genes with perturbed sense and antisense transcription, suggesting a general but important involvement of excludons with intracellular acclimatization. Notably, genes involved with the activation of the mitochondrion-like energy generation program, specifically with metabolite import and glycolysis, are also members of predicted excludons. Other intracellular Proteobacterial pathogens appear to employ a similar mitochondrion-like energy generation program, suggesting a potentially conserved mechanism for optimized energy acquisition from hosts centered around the TCA cycle.IMPORTANCEPhylogenetic evidence suggests that mitochondria and Proteobacteria, a phylum encompassing various intracellular pathogens, share a common ancestral lineage. In this study, we developed a novel method employing magnetic nanoparticles to explore the transcriptome of an aquatic Gammaproteobacterium, Edwardsiella piscicida, during intracellular infection of host cells. We show that the strategy E. piscicida uses to generate energy strikingly mirrors the function of mitochondria-energy generators devoid of glycolytic processes. Notably, several implicated genes are members of excludons-gene pairs antagonistically co-regulated by overlapping antisense transcription. Other intracellular Proteobacterial pathogens appear to adopt a similar mitochondrion-like energy generation program, indicating a possibly conserved strategy for optimized energy acquisition from hosts centered around the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andre Lanza
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Satoshi Kimura
- Department of Biomaterial Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuo Hirono
- Department of Marine Biosciences, Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazutoshi Yoshitake
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shigeharu Kinoshita
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shuichi Asakawa
- Department of Aquatic Bioscience, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
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Colpo A, Molinari A, Boldrini P, Živčak M, Brestič M, Demaria S, Baldisserotto C, Pancaldi S, Ferroni L. Thylakoid membrane appression in the giant chloroplast of Selaginella martensii Spring: A lycophyte challenges grana paradigms in shade-adapted species. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 336:111833. [PMID: 37595894 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
In vascular plants, the thylakoid architecture is dominated by the highly structured multiple membrane layers known as grana. The structural diversity of the thylakoid system among plant species is mainly determined by the adaptation to the growth light regime, according to a paradigm stating that shade-tolerant species are featured by a high membrane extension with an enhanced number of thylakoid layers per granum. In this study, the thylakoid system was analysed in Selaginella martensii Spring, a shade-adapted rainforest species belonging to lycophytes, a diminutive plant lineage, sister clade of all other vascular plants (euphyllophytes, including ferns and seed plants). The species is characterized by giant cup-shaped chloroplasts in the upper epidermis and, quantitatively less important, disk-shaped chloroplasts in the mesophyll and lower epidermis. The study aimed at the quantitative assessment of the thylakoid appression exploiting a combination of complementary methods, including electron microscopy, selective thylakoid solubilisation, electron paramagnetic resonance, and simultaneous analysis of fast chlorophyll a fluorescence and P700 redox state. With a chlorophyll a/b ratio of 2.6 and PSI/PSII ratio of 0.31, the plant confirmed two typical hallmarks of shade-adaptation. The morphometric analysis of electron micrographs revealed a 33% fraction of non-appressed thylakoid domains. However, contrasting with the structural paradigm of thylakoid shade-adaptation in angiosperms, S. martensii privileges the increase in the granum diameter in place of the increase in the number of layers building the granum. The very wide grana diameter, 727 nm on average, largely overcame the threshold of 500 nm currently hypothesized to allow an effective diffusion of long-range electron carriers. The fraction of non-appressed membranes based on the selective solubilisation of thylakoids with digitonin was 26%, lower than the morphometric determination, indicating the presence of non-appressed domains inaccessible to the detergent, most probably because of the high three-dimensional complexity of the thylakoid system in S. martensii. Particularly, strong irregularity of grana stacks is determined by assembling thylakoid layers of variable width that tend to slide apart from each other as the number of stacked layers increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Colpo
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Alessandra Molinari
- Department of Chemical, Pharmaceutical and Agricultural Sciences, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Paola Boldrini
- Center of Electron Microscopy, University of Ferrara, Via Luigi Borsari 46, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Marek Živčak
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak University of Agriculture, A. Hlinku 2, Nitra, 949 76, Slovak Republic
| | - Marian Brestič
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Agrobiology and Food Resources, Slovak University of Agriculture, A. Hlinku 2, Nitra, 949 76, Slovak Republic
| | - Sara Demaria
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Costanza Baldisserotto
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Simonetta Pancaldi
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Ferroni
- Department of Environmental and Prevention Sciences, University of Ferrara, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121 Ferrara, Italy.
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Hua L, Kaiser M, Carabadjac I, Meister A, Hause G, Heerklotz H. Vesicle budding caused by lysolipid-induced asymmetry stress. Biophys J 2023; 122:4011-4022. [PMID: 37649254 PMCID: PMC10598287 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2023.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Lysolipids such as lauroyl, myristoyl, and palmitoyl lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC) insert into the outer leaflet of liposomes but do not flip to the inner leaflet over many hours. This way, they create asymmetry stress between the intrinsic areas of the two leaflets. We have studied how this stress is relaxed with particular emphasis on the budding and fission of small (diameter 20-30 nm) daughter vesicles (DVs). Asymmetric flow field-flow fractionation was utilized to quantify the extent of budding from large unilamellar vesicles after exposure to LPC. Budding starts at a low threshold of the order of 2 mol% LPC in the outer (and ≈0 mol% LPC in the inner) leaflet. We see reason to assume that the fractional fluorescence intensity from DVs is a good approximation for the fraction of membrane lipid, POPC, transferred into DVs. Accordingly, budding starts with a "budding power" of ≈6 POPC molecules budding off per LPC added, corresponding to a more than 10-fold accumulation of LPC in the outer leaflet of DVs to ≈24 mol%. As long as budding is possible, little strain is built up in the membranes, a claim supported by the lack of changes in limiting fluorescence anisotropy, rotational correlation time, and fluorescence lifetime of symmetrically and asymmetrically inserted TMA-DPH. At physiological osmolarity, budding is typically limited to 20-30% of budded fraction with some batch-to-batch variation, but independent of the LPC species. We hypothesize that the budding limit is determined by the excess area of the liposomes upon preparation, which is then used up upon budding given the larger area-to-volume ratio of smaller liposomes. As the mother vesicles approach ideal spheres, budding must stop. This is qualitatively supported by increased and decreased budding limits of osmotically predeflated and preinflated vesicles, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Hua
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Kaiser
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Iulia Carabadjac
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Annette Meister
- ZIK HALOmem and Institute of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, MLU Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Gerd Hause
- Biozentrum, MLU Halle-Wittenberg, Halle, Germany
| | - Heiko Heerklotz
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada; Signaling Research Center BIOSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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Lacchini E, Venegas-Molina J, Goossens A. Structural and functional diversity in plant specialized metabolism signals and products: The case of oxylipins and triterpenes. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 74:102371. [PMID: 37148672 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2023.102371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Metabolic enzymes tend to evolve towards catalytic efficacy, precision and speed. This seems particularly true for ancient and conserved enzymes involved in fundamental cellular processes that are present virtually in every cell and organism and converting and producing relatively limited metabolite numbers. Nevertheless, sessile organisms like plants have an astonishing repertoire of specific (specialized) metabolites that, by numbers and chemical complexity, by far exceed primary metabolites. Most theories agree that early gene duplication, subsequent positive selection and diversifying evolution have allowed relaxed selection of duplicated metabolic genes, thus facilitating the accumulation of mutations that could broaden substrate/product specificity and lower activation barriers and kinetics. Here, we use oxylipins, oxygenated fatty acids of plastidial origin to which the phytohormone jasmonate belongs, and triterpenes, a large group of specialized metabolites whose biosynthesis is often elicited by jasmonates, to showcase the structural and functional diversity of chemical signals and products in plant metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elia Lacchini
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jhon Venegas-Molina
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Alain Goossens
- Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Ghent University, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium; VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium.
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Shokry S, Hegazy A, Abbas AM, Mostafa I, Eissa IH, Metwaly AM, Yahya G, El-Shazly AM, Aboshanab KM, Mostafa A. Phytoestrogen β-Sitosterol Exhibits Potent In Vitro Antiviral Activity against Influenza A Viruses. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:228. [PMID: 36851106 PMCID: PMC9964242 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11020228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza is a contagious infection in humans that is caused frequently by low pathogenic seasonal influenza viruses and occasionally by pathogenic avian influenza viruses (AIV) of H5, H7, and H9 subtypes. Recently, the clinical sector in poultry and humans has been confronted with many challenges, including the limited number of antiviral drugs and the rapid evolution of drug-resistant variants. Herein, the anti-influenza activities of various plant-derived phytochemicals were investigated against highly pathogenic avian influenza A/H5N1 virus (HPAIV H5N1) and seasonal low pathogenic human influenza A/H1N1 virus (LPHIV H1N1). Out of the 22 tested phytochemicals, the steroid compounds β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol-O-glucoside have very potent activity against the predefined influenza A viruses (IAV). Both steroids could induce such activity by affecting multiple stages during IAV replication cycles, including viral adsorption and replication with a major and significant impact on the virus directly in a cell-free status "viricidal effect". On a molecular level, several molecular docking studies suggested that β-sitosterol and β-sitosterol-O-glucoside exhibited viricidal effects through blocking active binding sites of the hemagglutinin surface protein, as well as showing inhibitory effects against replication through the binding with influenza neuraminidase activity and blocking the active sites of the M2 proton channel activity. The phytoestrogen β-sitosterol has structural similarity with the active form of the female sex hormone estradiol, and this similarity is likely one of the molecular determinants that enables the phytoestrogen β-sitosterol and its derivative to control IAV infection in vitro. This promising anti-influenza activity of β-sitosterol and its O-glycoside derivative, according to both in vitro and cheminformatics studies, recommend both phytochemicals for further studies going through preclinical and clinical phases as efficient anti-influenza drug candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Shokry
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Akram Hegazy
- Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza District, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Ahmad M. Abbas
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo 11566, Egypt
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, King Salman International University (KSIU), Sinai 46612, Egypt
| | - Islam Mostafa
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim H. Eissa
- Pharmaceutical Medicinal Chemistry & Drug Design Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M. Metwaly
- Pharmacognosy and Medicinal Plants Department, Faculty of Pharmacy (Boys), Al-Azhar University, Cairo 11884, Egypt
- Biopharmaceutical Products Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute, City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), Alexandria 21934, Egypt
| | - Galal Yahya
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Assem M. El-Shazly
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
- Faculty of Pharmacy, El Saleheya El Gadida University, El Saleheya El Gadida 44813, Sharkia, Egypt
| | - Khaled M. Aboshanab
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Abbassia, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Mostafa
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Centre, Giza 12622, Egypt
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Ni J, Liu Y, Hong H, Kong X, Han Y, Zhang L, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Hua C, Wang Q, Wang X, Huang Y, YiKun W, Meili D. A novel fluorescent digitonin derivative for non-invasive skin cholesterol detection: potential application in atherosclerosis screening. RSC Adv 2022; 12:18397-18406. [PMID: 35799936 PMCID: PMC9214714 DOI: 10.1039/d2ra01982e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a great demand for the rapid and non-invasive atherosclerosis screening method. Cholesterol content in the epidermis of the skin is an early biomarker for atherosclerosis. Risk assessment of atherosclerosis can be achieved by measuring cholesterol in the epidermis. Here, we synthesised a new fluorescent digitonin derivative (FDD) for the non-invasive detection of skin cholesterol. The results of fluorescence spectroscopy studies indicated that the probe exhibited desirable selectivity for cholesterol. The proof-of-concept preclinical study confirmed that FDD can detect different concentrations of skin cholesterol; patients diagnosed with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and the at-risk atherosclerosis group exhibited higher skin cholesterol content than the normal group. The area under the ROC curve for distinguishing the normal/disease group was 0.9228 (95% confidence interval, 0.8938 to 0.9518), and the area under the ROC curve for distinguishing the normal/risk group was 0.9422 (95% confidence interval, 0.9178 to 0.9665). We anticipate that this non-invasive skin cholesterol test may be used as a risk assessment tool for atherosclerosis screening in a large population for further examination and intervention in high-risk populations. Digitonin was used to synthesise a fluorescence probe for the non-invasive detection of skin cholesterol. This non-invasive skin cholesterol method may be used as a risk assessment tool for atherosclerosis screening in a large population.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingshu Ni
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
- Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Haiou Hong
- The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230001, China
| | - Xiangyong Kong
- The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230001, China
| | - Yongsheng Han
- The First Affiliated Hospital of USTC, Division of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230001, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hefei, 230051, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Yuanzhi Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Changyi Hua
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Quanfu Wang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Xia Wang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Yao Huang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Wang YiKun
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Dong Meili
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Provincial Engineering Laboratory for Medical Optical Diagnosis &Treatment Technology and Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
- Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
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8
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Bura A, Jurak Begonja A. Imaging of Intracellular and Plasma Membrane Pools of PI(4,5)P 2 and PI4P in Human Platelets. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:1331. [PMID: 34947862 PMCID: PMC8705196 DOI: 10.3390/life11121331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphoinositides (PIs) are phosphorylated membrane lipids that have a plethora of roles in the cell, including vesicle trafficking, signaling, and actin reorganization. The most abundant PIs in the cell are phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate [PI(4,5)P2] and phosphatidylinositol-4-monophosphate (PI4P). The localization and roles of both PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P are well established, is the broadly accepted methodological approach for their immunocytochemical visualization in different cell compartments in several cell lines. However, not much is known about these PIs in platelets (PLTs), the smallest blood cells that detect vessel wall injury, activate, and stop the bleeding. Therefore, we sought to investigate the localization of PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P in resting and activated PLTs by antibody staining. Here, we show that the intracellular pools of PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P can be detected by the established staining protocol, and these pools can be modulated by inhibitors of OCRL phosphatase and PI4KIIIα kinase. However, although resting PLTs readily stain for the plasma membrane (PM) pools of PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P, just a few activated cells were stained with the established protocol. We show that optimized protocol allows for the visualization of PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P at PM in activated PLTs, which could also be modulated by OCRL and PI4KIIIα inhibitors. We conclude that PI(4,5)P2 and PI4P are more sensitive to lipid extraction by permeabilizing agents in activated than in resting human PLTs, which suggests their different roles during PLT activation.
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Lajdova I, Ovsonkova L, Spustova V, Oksa A, Chorvat D, Mateasik A, Marcek Chorvatova A. Spectrally and Time-Resolved Fluorescence Imaging of 22-NBD-Cholesterol in Human Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26226800. [PMID: 34833892 PMCID: PMC8619048 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26226800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2021] [Revised: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The interaction of the fluorescent probe 22-NBD-cholesterol with membranes of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was tested by time- and spectrally resolved fluorescence imaging to monitor the disturbance of lipid metabolism in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and its treatment with statins. Blood samples from healthy volunteers (HV) and CKD patients, either treated or untreated with statins, were compared. Spectral imaging was done using confocal microscopy at 16 spectral channels in response to 458 nm excitation. Time-resolved imaging was achieved by time-correlated single photon counting (TCSPC) following excitation at 475 nm. The fluorescence of 22-NBD-cholesterol was mostly integrated into plasmatic membrane and/or intracellular membrane but was missing from the nuclear region. The presence of two distinct spectral forms of 22-NBD-cholesterol was uncovered, with significant variations between studied groups. In addition, two fluorescence lifetime components were unmasked, changing in CKD patients treated with statins. The gathered results indicate that 22-NBD-cholesterol may serve as a tool to study changes in the lipid metabolism of patients with CKD to monitor the effect of statin treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Lajdova
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Slovak Medical University, 83303 Bratislava, Slovakia; (I.L.); (V.S.); (A.O.)
| | - Livia Ovsonkova
- Department of Biophotonics, International Laser Centre of the Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information, 84104 Bratislava, Slovakia; (L.O.); (D.C.); (A.M.)
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, 91701 Trnava, Slovakia
| | - Viera Spustova
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Slovak Medical University, 83303 Bratislava, Slovakia; (I.L.); (V.S.); (A.O.)
| | - Adrian Oksa
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Slovak Medical University, 83303 Bratislava, Slovakia; (I.L.); (V.S.); (A.O.)
| | - Dusan Chorvat
- Department of Biophotonics, International Laser Centre of the Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information, 84104 Bratislava, Slovakia; (L.O.); (D.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Anton Mateasik
- Department of Biophotonics, International Laser Centre of the Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information, 84104 Bratislava, Slovakia; (L.O.); (D.C.); (A.M.)
| | - Alzbeta Marcek Chorvatova
- Department of Biophotonics, International Laser Centre of the Slovak Centre of Scientific and Technical Information, 84104 Bratislava, Slovakia; (L.O.); (D.C.); (A.M.)
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius, 91701 Trnava, Slovakia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +421-2-65421575
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Nanoscopic investigation of C9orf72 poly-GA oligomers on nuclear membrane disruption by a photoinducible platform. Commun Chem 2021; 4:111. [PMID: 36697556 PMCID: PMC9814621 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-021-00547-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycine-alanine dipeptide repeats (GA DPRs) translated from the mutated C9orf72 gene have recently been correlated with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). While GA DPRs aggregates have been suggested as amyloid, the biophysical features and cytotoxicity of GA DPRs oligomers has not been explored due to its unstable nature. In this study, we develop a photoinducible platform based on methoxynitrobenzene chemistry to enrich GA DPRs that allows monitoring the oligomerization process of GA DPRs in cells. By applying advanced microscopies, we examined the GA DPRs oligomerization process nanoscopically in a time-dependent manner. We provided direct evidences to demonstrate GA DPRs oligomers rather than nanofibrils disrupt nuclear membrane. Moreover, we found GA DPRs hamper nucleocytoplasmic transport in cells and cause cytosolic retention of TAR DNA-binding protein 43 in cortical neurons. Our results highlight the toxicity of GA DPRs oligomers, which is a key step toward elucidating the pathological roles of C9orf72 DPRs.
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Escaliante LADS, Busato B, Petkowicz CLDO, Cadena SMSC, Noleto GR. Cytotoxic effect of xyloglucan and oxovanadium (IV/V) xyloglucan complex in HepG2 cells. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 185:40-48. [PMID: 34144065 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
It is well known that the chemical structure of polysaccharides is important to their final biological effect. In this study we investigated the cytotoxic effect of xyloglucan from Copaifera langsdorffii seeds (XGC) and its complex with oxovanadium (XGC:VO) on hepatocellular carcinoma cells (HepG2). After 72 h of incubation, XGC and XGC:VO (200 μg/mL) reduced cell viability in ~20% and ~40%, respectively. At same conditions, only XGC:VO increased in ~20% the LDH enzyme release. In permeabilized cells, incubated with XGC and XGC:VO (200 μg/mL) for 72 h, NADH oxidase activity was reduced by ~45% with XGC and XGC:VO. The succinate oxidase activity was reduced by ~35% with XGC and ~65% with XGC:VO, evidencing that polysaccharide complexation with vanadium could intensify its effects on the respiratory chain. According to this result, the mitochondrial membrane potential was also reduced by ~9% for XGC and ~30% for XGC:VO, when compared to the control group. Interestingly, ATP levels were more elevated for XGC:VO in respect to XGC, probably due the enhance in glycolytic flux evidenced by increased levels of lactate. These results show that the xyloglucan complexation with oxovanadium (IV/V) potentiates the cytotoxic effect of the native polysaccharide, possibly by impairment of oxidative phosphorylation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bianca Busato
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Molecular, Universidade Federal do Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
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12
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Ni J, Hong H, Zhang Y, Tang S, Han Y, Fang Z, Zhang Y, Zhou N, Wang Q, Liu Y, Li Z, Wang Y, Dong M. Development of a non-invasive method for skin cholesterol detection: pre-clinical assessment in atherosclerosis screening. Biomed Eng Online 2021; 20:52. [PMID: 34074299 PMCID: PMC8170999 DOI: 10.1186/s12938-021-00889-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Establishing a high-accuracy and non-invasive method is essential for evaluating cardiovascular disease. Skin cholesterol is a novel marker for assessing the risk of atherosclerosis and can be used as an independent risk factor of early assessment of atherosclerotic risk. Methods We propose a non-invasive skin cholesterol detection method based on absorption spectroscopy. Detection reagents specifically bind to skin cholesterol and react with indicator to produce colored products, the skin cholesterol content can be obtained through absorption spectrum information on colored products detected by non-invasive technology. Gas chromatography is used to measure cholesterol extracted from the skin to verify the accuracy and reliability of the non-invasive test method. A total of 342 subjects were divided into normal group (n = 115), disease group (n = 110) and risk group (n = 117). All subjects underwent non-invasive skin cholesterol test. The diagnostic accuracy of the measured value was analyzed by receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Results The proposed method is able to identify porcine skin containing gradient concentration of cholesterol. The values measured by non-invasive detection method were significantly correlated with gas chromatography measured results (r = 0.9074, n = 73, p < 0.001). Bland–Altman bias was − 72.78 ± 20.03 with 95% limits of agreement − 112.05 to − 33.51, falling within the prespecified clinically non-significant range. We further evaluated the method of patients with atherosclerosis and risk population as well as normal group, patients and risk atherosclerosis group exhibited higher skin cholesterol content than normal group (all P < 0.001). The area under the ROC curve for distinguishing Normal/Disease group was 0.8642 (95% confidence interval, 0.8138 to 0.9146), meanwhile, the area under the ROC curve for distinguishing Normal/Risk group was 0.8534 (95% confidence interval, 0.8034 to 0.9034). Conclusions The method demonstrated its capability of detecting different concentration of skin cholesterol. This non-invasive skin cholesterol detection system may potentially be used as a risk assessment tool for atherosclerosis screening, especially for a large population. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12938-021-00889-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingshu Ni
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Haiou Hong
- Health Management Center, First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China
| | - Shiqi Tang
- Health Management Center, Renmin Hospital of WuHan University, Wuhan, 430060, China
| | - Yongsheng Han
- Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230001, China
| | - Zhaohui Fang
- Department of Endocrinology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Yuanzhi Zhang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Nan Zhou
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Quanfu Wang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China.,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.,Wanjiang Center for Development of Emerging Industrial Technology, Tongling, 244000, China
| | - Zhongsheng Li
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - YiKun Wang
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China. .,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
| | - Meili Dong
- Anhui Provincial Engineering Technology Research Center for Biomedical Optical Instrument, Anhui Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Hefei Institutes of Physical Science , Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China. .,University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, 230026, China.
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Hewton KG, Johal AS, Parker SJ. Transporters at the Interface between Cytosolic and Mitochondrial Amino Acid Metabolism. Metabolites 2021; 11:metabo11020112. [PMID: 33669382 PMCID: PMC7920303 DOI: 10.3390/metabo11020112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2021] [Accepted: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are central organelles that coordinate a vast array of metabolic and biologic functions important for cellular health. Amino acids are intricately linked to the bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and homeostatic function of the mitochondrion and require specific transporters to facilitate their import, export, and exchange across the inner mitochondrial membrane. Here we review key cellular metabolic outputs of eukaryotic mitochondrial amino acid metabolism and discuss both known and unknown transporters involved. Furthermore, we discuss how utilization of compartmentalized amino acid metabolism functions in disease and physiological contexts. We examine how improved methods to study mitochondrial metabolism, define organelle metabolite composition, and visualize cellular gradients allow for a more comprehensive understanding of how transporters facilitate compartmentalized metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keeley G. Hewton
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (K.G.H.); (A.S.J.)
| | - Amritpal S. Johal
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (K.G.H.); (A.S.J.)
| | - Seth J. Parker
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; (K.G.H.); (A.S.J.)
- British Columbia Children’s Hospital Research Institute, Vancouver, BC V6H 0B3, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-604-875-3121
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Effects of Sterols on the Interaction of SDS, Benzalkonium Chloride, and A Novel Compound, Kor105, with Membranes. Biomolecules 2019; 9:biom9100627. [PMID: 31635312 PMCID: PMC6843611 DOI: 10.3390/biom9100627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 10/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Sterols change the biophysical properties of lipid membranes. Here, we analyzed how sterols affect the activity of widely used antimicrobial membrane-active compounds, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and benzalkonium chloride (BAC). We also tested a novel benzalkonium-like substance, Kor105. Our data suggest that benzalkonium and Kor105 disturb the ordering of the membrane lipid packaging, and this disturbance is dampened by cholesterol. The disturbance induced by Kor105 is stronger than that induced by BAC because of the higher rigidity of the Kor105 molecule due to a shorter linker between the phenyl group and quaternary nitrogen. On the contrary, individual SDS molecules do not cause the disturbance. Thus, in the tested range of concentrations, SDS-membrane interaction is not influenced by cholesterol. To study how sterols influence the biological effects of these chemicals, we used yeast strains lacking Lam1-4 proteins. These proteins transport sterols from the plasma membrane into the endoplasmic reticulum. We found that the mutants are resistant to BAC and Kor105 but hypersensitive to SDS. Together, our findings show that sterols influence the interaction of SDS versus benzalkonium chloride and Kor105 with the membranes in a completely different manner.
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15
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Fernie AR. Seeing is believing: the three-way division of labor in the photosynthetic thylakoid membrane. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 97:410-411. [PMID: 30762940 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
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16
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Koochak H, Puthiyaveetil S, Mullendore DL, Li M, Kirchhoff H. The structural and functional domains of plant thylakoid membranes. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2019; 97:412-429. [PMID: 30312499 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.14127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the stacking of part of the photosynthetic thylakoid membrane generates two main subcompartments: the stacked grana core and unstacked stroma lamellae. However, a third distinct domain, the grana margin, has been postulated but its structural and functional identity remains elusive. Here, an optimized thylakoid fragmentation procedure combined with detailed ultrastructural, biochemical, and functional analyses reveals the distinct composition of grana margins. It is enriched with lipids, cytochrome b6 f complex, and ATPase while depleted in photosystems and light-harvesting complexes. A quantitative method is introduced that is based on Blue Native Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) and dot immunoblotting for quantifying various photosystem II (PSII) assembly forms in different thylakoid subcompartments. The results indicate that the grana margin functions as a degradation and disassembly zone for photodamaged PSII. In contrast, the stacked grana core region contains fully assembled and functional PSII holocomplexes. The stroma lamellae, finally, contain monomeric PSII as well as a significant fraction of dimeric holocomplexes that identify this membrane area as the PSII repair zone. This structural organization and the heterogeneous PSII distribution support the idea that the stacking of thylakoid membranes leads to a division of labor that establishes distinct membrane areas with specific functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haniyeh Koochak
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, PO Box 646340, Pullman, WA, 99164-6340, USA
| | - Sujith Puthiyaveetil
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, PO Box 646340, Pullman, WA, 99164-6340, USA
| | - Daniel L Mullendore
- Franceschi Microscopy and Imaging Center, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA
| | - Meng Li
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, PO Box 646340, Pullman, WA, 99164-6340, USA
| | - Helmut Kirchhoff
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, PO Box 646340, Pullman, WA, 99164-6340, USA
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