Energy and environmental assessment of a traction lithium-ion battery pack for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles

The Role of Lithium-Ion Batteries in the Growing Trend of Electric Vehicles

Within the automotive field, there has been an increasing amount of global attention toward the usability of combustion-independent electric vehicles (EVs). Once considered an overly ambitious and costly venture, the popularity and practicality of EVs have been gradually increasing due to the usage of Li-ion batteries (LIBs). Although the topic of LIBs has been extensively covered, there has not yet been a review that covers the current advancements of LIBs from economic, industrial, and technical perspectives. Specific overviews on aspects such as international policy changes, the implementation of cloud-based systems with deep learning capabilities, and advanced EV-based LIB electrode materials are discussed. Recommendations to address the current challenges in the EV-based LIB market are discussed. Furthermore, suggestions for short-term, medium-term, and long-term goals that the LIB-EV industry should follow are provided to ensure its success in the near future. Based on this literature review, it can be suggested that EV-based LIBs will continue to be a hot topic in the years to come and that there is still a large amount of room for their overall advancement.

Research on Global Optimization Algorithm of Integrated Energy and Thermal Management for Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles

Power distribution and battery thermal management are important technologies for improving the energy efficiency of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). In response to the global optimization of integrated energy thermal management strategy (IETMS) for PHEVs, a dynamic programming algorithm based on adaptive grid optimization (AGO-DP) is proposed in this paper to improve optimization performance by reducing the optimization range of SOC and battery temperature, and adaptively adjusting the grid distribution of state variables according to the actual feasible region. The simulation results indicate that through AGO-DP optimization, the reduction ratio of the state feasible region is more than 30% under different driving conditions. Meanwhile, the algorithm can obtain better global optimal driving costs more rapidly and accurately than traditional dynamic programming algorithms (DP). The computation time is reduced by 33.29-84.67%, and the accuracy of the global optimal solution is improved by 0.94-16.85% compared to DP. The optimal control of the engine and air conditioning system is also more efficient and reasonable. Furthermore, AGO-DP is applied to explore IETMS energy-saving potential for PHEVs. It is found that the IETMS energy-saving potential range is 3.68-23.74% under various driving conditions, which increases the energy-saving potential by 0.55-3.26% compared to just doing the energy management.

Role of geopolitical risk, currency fluctuation, and economic policy on tourist arrivals: temporal analysis of BRICS economies

The tourism industry is vulnerable to a range of economic and political factors, which can have both short-term and long-term impacts on tourist arrivals. The study aims to investigate the temporal dynamics of these factors and their impact on tourist arrivals. The method employed is a panel data regression analysis, using data from BRICS economies over a period of 1980-2020. The dependent variable is the number of tourist arrivals, while the independent variables are geopolitical risk, currency fluctuation, and economic policy. Control variables such as GDP, exchange rate, and distance to major tourist destinations are also included. The results show that geopolitical risk and currency fluctuation have a significant negative impact on tourist arrivals, while economic policy has a positive impact. The study also finds that the impact of geopolitical risk is stronger in the short term, while the impact of economic policy is stronger in the long term. Additionally, the study shows that the effects of these factors on tourist arrivals vary across BRICS countries. The policy implications of this study suggest that BRICS economies need to develop proactive economic policies that promote stability and encourage investment in the tourism industry.

Life cycle environmental impact assessment for battery-powered electric vehicles at the global and regional levels

As an important part of electric vehicles, lithium-ion battery packs will have a certain environmental impact in the use stage. To analyze the comprehensive environmental impact, 11 lithium-ion battery packs composed of different materials were selected as the research object. By introducing the life cycle assessment method and entropy weight method to quantify environmental load, a multilevel index evaluation system was established based on environmental battery characteristics. The results show that the Li-S battery is the cleanest battery in the use stage. In addition, in terms of power structure, when battery packs are used in China, the carbon footprint, ecological footprint, acidification potential, eutrophication potential, human toxicity cancer and human toxicity noncancer are much higher than those in the other four regions. Although the current power structure in China is not conducive to the sustainable development of electric vehicles, the optimization of the power structure is expected to make electric vehicles achieve clean driving in China.

Life Cycle Prediction Assessment of Battery Electrical Vehicles with Special Focus on Different Lithium-Ion Power Batteries in China

The incentive policies of new energy vehicles substantially promoted the development of the electrical vehicles technology and industry in China. However, the environmental impact of the key technology parameters progress on the battery electrical vehicles (BEV) is uncertain, and the BEV matching different lithium-ion power batteries shows different environmental burdens. This study conducts a life cycle assessment (LCA) of a BEV matching four different power batteries of lithium-ion phosphate (LFP), lithium-ion nickel-cobalt-manganese (NCM), lithium manganese oxide (LMO), and lithium titanate oxide (LTO) batteries. In addition, the 2025 and 2030 prediction analyses of the batteries production and life cycle BEV are conducted with the specially considered change and progress of the power battery energy density, battery manufacturing energy consumption, electricity structure, battery charge efficiency, and vehicle lightweight level. In addition, sensitivity analyses of power battery energy density, battery manufacturing energy consumption, electricity structure, and battery charge efficiency are conducted. The results show that the LFP battery is more environmentally friendly in the global warming potential (GWP) and acidification potential (AP), and the NCM battery is more environmentally friendly in abiotic depletion (fossil) (ADP(f)) and human toxicity potential (HTP). However, the LTO battery shows the highest environmental impact among the four environmental impact categories due to the lower energy density. For life cycle BEV, GWP and ADP(f) of BEV based on LFP, NCM, and LMO are lower than those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV), while AP and HTP of BEV based on the four batteries are higher than those of ICEV. The grave-to-cradle (GTC) phase of vehicle has substantial environmental benefit to reduce the human toxicity emission. With the improvement of the battery density, battery charge efficiency, electricity structure, and glider lightweight level, life cycle BEVs based on the four different batteries show substantial environmental benefits for four environmental impact categories.

Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management

The environmental performance of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is influenced by their battery size and charging electricity source. Therefore, assessing their environmental performance should consider changes in the electricity sector and refurbishment of their batteries. This study conducts a scenario-based Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of three different scenarios combining four key parameters: future changes in the charging electricity mix, battery efficiency fade, battery refurbishment, and recycling for their collective importance on the life-cycle environmental performance of a BEV. The system boundary covers all the life-cycle stages of the BEV and includes battery refurbishment, except for its second use stage. The refurbished battery was modelled considering refurbished components and a 50% cell conversation rate for the second life of 5 years. The results found a 9.4% reduction in climate impacts when future changes (i.e., increase in the share of renewable energy) in the charging electricity are considered. Recycling reduced the BEV climate impacts by approximately 8.3%, and a reduction smaller than 1% was observed for battery refurbishment. However, the battery efficiency fade increases the BEV energy consumption, which results in a 7.4 to 8.1% rise in use-stage climate impacts. Therefore, it is vital to include battery efficiency fade and changes to the electricity sector when estimating the use-stage impacts of BEVs; without this, LCA results could be unreliable. The sensitivity analysis showed the possibility of a higher reduction in the BEV climate impacts for longer second lifespans (>5 years) and higher cell conversation rates (>50%). BEV and battery production are the most critical stages for all the other impact categories assessed, specifically contributing more than 90% to mineral resource scarcity. However, recycling and battery refurbishment can reduce the burden of the different impact categories considered. Therefore, manufacturers should design BEV battery packs while considering recycling and refurbishment.

Estimation of Greenhouse Gas Emissions of Petrol, Biodiesel and Battery Electric Vehicles in Malaysia Based on Life Cycle Approach

A steady rise in the ownership of vehicles in Malaysia has drawn attention to the need for more effective strategies to reduce the emissions of the road transport sector. Although the electrification of vehicles and replacing petrol with biofuel are the strategies being considered in Malaysia, these strategies have yet to be fully evaluated from an environmental perspective. In this study, a life cycle assessment was conducted to compare the greenhouse gas emissions of different types of transportation means (passenger cars, two-wheelers (motorbikes), and buses) with several types of powertrains (petrol, biodiesel, electricity) based on multiple lifecycle stages in Malaysia. The impact of considering land use change for the biodiesel production in the LCA was also considered in this study. It was found that the transition from internal combustion engine vehicles fueled by petrol to electric vehicles would reduce the greenhouse gas emission for passenger cars, two-wheelers, and buses. However, because the greenhouse gas emissions of biodiesel-fueled vehicles are higher than those of petrol-fueled vehicles, even without considering land use change, the results indicate that the transition from a 10% to 20% biofuel blend, which is a current strategy in Malaysia, will not result in a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions for the transport sector in Malaysia.

Comparative life cycle assessment of LFP and NCM batteries including the secondary use and different recycling technologies

Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries and lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide (NCM) batteries are the most widely used power lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in electric vehicles (EVs) currently. The future trend is to reuse LIBs retired from EVs for other applications, such as energy storage systems (ESS). However, the environmental performance of LIBs during the entire life cycle, from the cradle to the grave, has not been extensively discussed. In this study, life cycle assessment (LCA) was used to quantify and compare the environmental impacts of LFP and NCM batteries. Apart from the phases of production, the first use in EVs, and recycling, the repurposing of retired LIBs and their secondary use in the ESS were also included in the system boundary. Also, the environmental impacts of various recycling processes were evaluated. The LCA results suggested that the NCM battery had better comprehensive environmental performance than the LFP one but shorter service life over the whole life cycle. In China, the first and secondary use phases contributed most to the environmental impacts with electricity mostly generated from fossil fuels. The LIB production phase was relevant to all assessed impact categories and contributed more than 50% to Abiotic Depletion Potential (ADP elements) particularly. The environmental loads could be mitigated through the recovery of metals and other materials. And, hydrometallurgy was recommended for recycling waste LIBs by better environmental advantages than pyrometallurgy and direct physical recycling. Sensitivity analysis revealed that by optimizing the charge-discharge efficiency of LIBs, particularly LFP batteries, all environmental burdens could be considerably decreased. Therefore, improving the electrochemical performance of LIBs and increasing the use proportion of clean energy were crucial to reduce the environmental impacts over their entire life cycle.

A review of the life cycle assessment of electric vehicles: Considering the influence of batteries

The automotive industry is currently on the verge of electrical transition, and the environmental performance of electric vehicles (EVs) is of great concern. To assess the environmental performance of EVs scientifically and accurately, we reviewed the life cycle environmental impacts of EVs and compared them with those of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Considering that the battery is the core component of EVs, we further summarise the environmental impacts of battery production, use, secondary utilisation, recycling, and remanufacturing. The results showed that the environmental impact of EVs in the production phase is higher than that of ICEVs due to battery manufacturing. EVs in the use phase obtained a better overall image than ICEVs, although this largely depended on the share of clean energy generation. In the recycling phase, repurposing and remanufacturing retired batteries are helpful in improving the environmental benefits of EVs. Over the entire life cycle, EVs have the potential to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and fossil energy consumption; however, they have higher impacts than ICEVs in terms of metal and mineral consumption and human toxicity potential. In summary, optimising the power structure, upgrading battery technology, and improving the recycling efficiency are of great significance for the large-scale promotion of EVs, closed-loop production of batteries, and sustainable development of the resources, environment, and economy.

A Review on Environmental Efficiency Evaluation of New Energy Vehicles Using Life Cycle Analysis

New energy vehicles (NEVs), especially electric vehicles (EVs), address the important task of reducing the greenhouse effect. It is particularly important to measure the environmental efficiency of new energy vehicles, and the life cycle analysis (LCA) model provides a comprehensive evaluation method of environmental efficiency. To provide researchers with knowledge regarding the research trends of LCA in NEVs, a total of 282 related studies were counted from the Web of Science database and analyzed regarding their research contents, research preferences, and research trends. The conclusion drawn from this research is that the stages of energy resource extraction and collection, carrier production and energy transportation, maintenance, and replacement are not considered to be research links. The stages of material, equipment, and car transportation and operation equipment settling, and forms of use need to be considered in future research. Hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicles (HFCEVs), vehicle type classification, the water footprint, battery recovery and reuse, and battery aging are the focus of further research, and comprehensive evaluation combined with more evaluation methods is the direction needed for the optimization of LCA. According to the results of this study regarding EV and hybrid power vehicles (including plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV), fuel-cell electric vehicles (FCEV), hybrid electric vehicles (HEV), and extended range electric vehicles (EREV)), well-to-wheel (WTW) average carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions have been less than those in the same period of gasoline internal combustion engine vehicles (GICEV). However, EV and hybrid electric vehicle production CO2 emissions have been greater than those during the same period of GICEV and the total CO2 emissions of EV have been less than during the same period of GICEV.

Environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling and reusing for manufacturing of lithium-ion traction batteries in China

Recycling lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles is considered an important way to tackle the future supply risks of virgin materials, but the actual environmental impact of traction battery recycling is controversial. This study conducted a process-based life cycle assessment to quantify the environmental impacts of hydrometallurgical recycling of two common lithium-ion traction batteries (lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide and lithium iron phosphate battery) and reusing materials in their manufacturing in China. The results show that recycling can cause net environmental benefits of the two traction battery types for the considered impact categories, but the net benefits for direct recycling technology are higher because of fewer requirements of chemicals and energy. Reusing recovered materials in battery manufacturing would reduce the impacts in comparison to no recycling, but the reduction potential of greenhouse gas emission and energy demand is not significant. Sensitivity analysis shows that recycling benefits are highly dependent on recovering efficiency and electricity used for manufacturing and recycling. Comprehensive management strategies are necessary to improve the end-of-life traction battery management, such as using carbon-free energy sources, designing batteries with less metal, and developing recycling technology using fewer chemicals. This study contributes by offering transparent life cycle inventory for hydrometallurgical recycling lithium-ion traction batteries and providing scientific knowledge to improve their sustainable management.

An overview of global power lithium-ion batteries and associated critical metal recycling

The rapid development of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in emerging markets is pouring huge reserves into, and triggering broad interest in the battery sector, as the popularity of electric vehicles (EVs)is driving the explosive growth of EV LIBs. These mounting demands are posing severe challenges to the supply of raw materials for LIBs and producing an enormous quantity of spent LIBs, bringing difficulties in the areas of resource allocation and environmental protection. This review article presents an overview of the global situation of power LIBs, aiming at different methods to treat spent power LIBs and their associated metals. We provide a critical review of power LIB supply chain, industrial development, waste treatment strategies and recycling, etc. Power LIBs will form the largest proportion of the battery industry in the next decade. The analysis of the sustainable supply of critical metal materials is emphasized, as recycling metal materials can alleviate the tight supply chain of power LIBs. The existing significant recycling practices that have been recognized as economically beneficial can promote metal closed-loop recycling. Scientific thinking needs to innovate sustainable and cost-effective recycling technologies to protect the environment because of the chemicals contained in power LIBs.

Life cycle assessment of hydrogen-powered city buses in the High V.LO-City project: integrating vehicle operation and refuelling infrastructure

During the project High V.LO-City, which ended in December 2019, 14 hydrogen fuel cell buses were operated in four European cities. This paper aims at presenting total emissions through the lifetime of fuel cell buses with different hydrogen production options, including the refuelling stations. The environmental assessment of such bus system is carried out using the life cycle assessment methodology. Three hydrogen production pathways are investigated: water electrolysis, chlor-alkali electrolysis and steam methane reforming. Fuel economy during bus operation is around 10.25 KgH2/100 km, and the refuelling station energy demand ranges between 7 and 9 KWh/KgH2. To support the inventory stage, dedicated software tools were developed for collecting and processing a huge amount of bus data and refuelling station performance, for automating data entry and for impacts calculation. The results show that hydrogen-powered buses, compared to a diesel bus, have the potential to reduce emissions during the use phase, if renewables resources are used. On the other hand, impacts from the vehicle production, including battery pack and fuel cell stack, still dominate environmental load. Consequently, improving the emission profile of fuel cell bus system requires to promote clean electricity sources to supply a low-carbon hydrogen and to sharpen policy focus regarding life cycle management and to counter potential setbacks, in particular those related to problem shifting and to grid improvement. For hazardous emissions and resource use, the high energy intensity of mining and refining activities still poses challenges on how to further enhance the environmental advantages of fuel cells and battery packs.

A Life Cycle Environmental Impact Comparison between Traditional, Hybrid, and Electric Vehicles in the European Context

Global warming (GW) and urban pollution focused a great interest on hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) as cleaner alternatives to traditional internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). The environmental impact related to the use of both ICEV and HEV mainly depends on the fossil fuel used by the thermal engines, while, in the case of the BEV, depends on the energy sources employed to produce electricity. Moreover, the production phase of each vehicle may also have a relevant environmental impact, due to the manufacturing processes and the materials employed. Starting from these considerations, the authors carried out a fair comparison of the environmental impact generated by three different vehicles characterized by different propulsion technology, i.e., an ICEV, an HEV, and a BEV, following the life cycle analysis methodology, i.e., taking into account five different environmental impact categories generated during all phases of the entire life of the vehicles, from raw material collection and parts production, to vehicle assembly and on-road use, finishing hence with the disposal phase. An extensive scenario analysis was also performed considering different electricity mixes and vehicle lifetime mileages. The results of this study confirmed the importance of the life cycle approach for the correct determination of the real impact related to the use of passenger cars and showed that the GW impact of a BEV during its entire life amounts to roughly 60% of an equivalent ICEV, while acidifying emissions and particulate matter were doubled. The HEV confirmed an excellent alternative to ICEV, showing good compromise between GW impact (85% with respect to the ICEV), terrestrial acidification, and particulate formation (similar to the ICEV). In regard to the mineral source deployment, a serious concern derives from the lithium-ion battery production for BEV. The results of the scenario analysis highlight how the environmental impact of a BEV may be altered by the lifetime mileage of the vehicle, and how the carbon footprint of the electricity used may nullify the ecological advantage of the BEV.

Understanding the Stabilizing Effects of Nanoscale Metal Oxide and Li-Metal Oxide Coatings on Lithium-Ion Battery Positive Electrode Materials

Nickel-rich layered oxides, such as LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂ (NMC622), are high-capacity electrode materials for lithium-ion batteries. However, this material faces issues, such as poor durability at high cut-off voltages (>4.4 V vs Li/Li⁺), which mainly originate from an unstable electrode-electrolyte interface. To reduce the side reactions at the interfacial zone and increase the structural stability of the NMC622 materials, nanoscale (<5 nm) coatings of TiO_x (TO) and Li_xTi_yO_z (LTO) were deposited over NMC622 composite electrodes using atomic layer deposition. It was found that these coatings provided a protective surface and also reinforced the electrode structure. Under high-voltage range (3.0-4.6 V) cycling, the coatings enhance the NMC electrochemical behavior, enabling longer cycle life and higher capacity. Cyclic voltammetry, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction analyses of the coated NMC electrodes suggest that the enhanced electrochemical performance originates from reduced side reactions. In situ dilatometry analysis shows reversible volume change for NMC-LTO during the cycling. It revealed that the dilation behavior of the electrode, resulting in crack formation and consequent particle degradation, is significantly suppressed for the coated sample. The ability of the coatings to mitigate the electrode degradation mechanisms, illustrated in this report, provides insight into a method to enhance the performance of Ni-rich positive electrode materials under high-voltage ranges.

Separation of cathode particles and aluminum current foil in lithium-ion battery by high-voltage pulsed discharge Part II: Prospective life cycle assessment based on experimental data

This series of papers addresses the recycling of cathode particles and aluminum (Al) foil from positive electrode sheet (PE sheet) dismantled from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) by applying a high-voltage pulsed discharge. As concluded in Part I of the series (Tokoro et al., 2021), cathode particles and Al foil were separated in water based on a single pulsed power application. This separation of LIB components by pulsed discharge was examined by means of prospective life cycle assessment and is expected to have applications in LIB reuse and recycling. The indicators selected were life cycle greenhouse gas (LC-GHG) emissions and life cycle resource consumption potential (LC-RCP). We first completed supplementary experiments to collect redundant data under several scale-up circumstances, and then attempted to quantify the uncertainties from scaling up and progress made in battery technology. When the batch scale of pulsed discharge separation is sufficiently large, the recovery of cathode particles and Al foil from PE sheet by pulsed discharge can reduce both LC-GHG and LC-RCP, in contrast to conventional recycling with roasting processes. Due to technology developments in LIB cathodes, the reuse of positive electrode active materials (PEAM) does not always have lower environmental impacts than the recycling of the raw materials of PEAM in the manufacturing of new LIB cathodes. This study achieved a proof of concept for resource consumption reduction induced by cathode utilization, considering LC-GHG and LC-RCP, by applying high-voltage pulsed discharge separation.

Recycling and Direct-Regeneration of Cathode Materials from Spent Ternary Lithium-Ion Batteries by Hydrometallurgy: Status Quo and Recent Developments : Economic recovery methods for lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxide cathode materials

The cathodes of spent ternary lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are rich in nonferrous metals, such as lithium, nickel, cobalt and manganese, which are important strategic raw materials and also potential sources of environmental pollution. Finding ways to extract these valuable metals cleanly and efficiently from spent cathodes is of great significance for sustainable development of the LIBs industry. In the light of low energy consumption, ‘green’ processing and high recovery efficiency, this paper provides an overview of different recovery technologies to recycle valuable metals from cathode materials of spent ternary LIBs. Development trends and application prospects for different recovery strategies for cathode materials from spent ternary LIBs are also predicted. We conclude that a highly economic recovery system: alkaline solution dissolution/calcination pretreatment → H2SO4 leaching → H2O2 reduction → coprecipitation regeneration of nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) will become the dominant stream for recycling retired NCM batteries. Furthermore, emerging advanced technologies, such as deep eutectic solvents (DESs) extraction and one‐step direct regeneration/recovery of NCM cathode materials are preferred methods to substitute conventional regeneration systems in the future.

Life Cycle Assessment for Supporting Eco-Design: The Case Study of Sodium–Nickel Chloride Cells

The European Union is moving towards a sustainable, decarbonized, and circular economy. It has identified seven key value chains in which to intervene, with the battery and vehicle value chain being one of them. Thus, actions and strategies for the sustainability of batteries need to be developed. Since Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a strategic tool for evaluating environmental sustainability, this paper investigates its application to two configurations of a sodium–nickel chloride cell (planar and tubular), focusing on the active material and the anode, with the purpose of identifying the configuration characterized by the lowest environmental impacts. The results, based on a “from cradle to gate” approach, showed that the tubular cell performs better for all environmental impact categories measured except for particulate matter, acidification, and resource depletion. With nickel being the main contributor to these impact categories, future sustainable strategies need to be oriented towards the reduction/recovery of this material or the use of nickel coming from a more sustainable supply chain. The original contribution of the paper is twofold: (1) It enriches the number of case studies of LCAs applied to sodium/nickel chloride cells, adding to the few studies on these types of cells that can be found in the existing scientific literature. (2) The results identify the environmental hot spots (cell configuration and materials used) for improving the environmental footprint of batteries made from sodium/nickel chloride cells.

Globalization, sustainable development, and variation in cost of power plant technologies: A perspective of developing economies

This study evaluates the sustainable power plant cost in the outlook of global power plant efficiency to reduce fossil fuel dependency and greenhouse gas emissions. For this purpose, the Global Change Assessment Model (GCAM) applied for conducting the cost assessment of power zone technologies for all principal electricity generation. This study considers the characteristics of essential factors (cement, price of resources, possible increases in employees, and metals) that affect costs. This study suggests that the cost of electricity-generating technologies significantly affects growth efficiency, reduction in production cost, and improving environmental conditions. It also suggests that the cost of electricity-generating technologies, combined with technology mixture, is the key factor behind replacing existing technology in the electricity sector. EPRI cost assessments expanded by around 30% and 50% during 2015-2016. Factors like competition amongst power plant owners, the ambiguous marketplace, production procedures, and lack of environment-related strategies have resulted in massive environmental degradation in developing economies like Pakistan. Based on empirical findings, this study recommends designing efficient technologies, which would reduce power plant costs and ensure vertical prospects related to environmental conditions in the future.

Comparative life cycle assessment of high performance lithium-sulfur battery cathodes

Lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries present a great potential to displace current energy storage chemistries thanks to their energy density that goes far beyond conventional batteries. To promote the development of greener Li-S batteries, closing the existing gap between the quantification of the potential environmental impacts associated with Li-S cathodes and their performance is required. Herein we show a comparative analysis of the life cycle environmental impacts of five Li-S battery cathodes with high sulfur loadings (1.5-15 mg·cm^-2) through life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology and cradle-to-gate boundary. Depending on the selected battery, the environmental impact can be reduced by a factor up to 5. LCA results from Li-S batteries are compared with the conventional lithium ion battery from Ecoinvent 3.6 database, showing a decreased environmental impact per kWh of storage capacity. A predominant role of the electrolyte on the environmental burdens associated with the use of Li-S batteries was also found. Sensitivity analysis shows that the specific impacts can be reduced by up to 70% by limiting the amount of used electrolyte. Overall, this manuscript emphasizes the potential of Li-S technology to develop environmentally benign batteries aimed at replacing existing energy storage systems.

Life Cycle Assessment of an NMC Battery for Application to Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles and Comparison with a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride Battery

This paper presents the results of an environmental assessment of a Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt (NMC) Lithium-ion traction battery for Battery Electric Light-Duty Commercial Vehicles (BEV-LDCV) used for urban and regional freight haulage. A cradle-to-grave Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) of NMC111 is provided, operation and end-of-life stages are included, and insight is also given into a Life Cycle Assessment of different NMC chemistries. The environmental impacts of the manufacturing stages of the NMC111 battery are then compared with those of a Sodium-Nickel-Chloride (ZEBRA) battery. In the second part of the work, two electric-battery LDCVs (powered with NMC111 and ZEBRA batteries, respectively) and a diesel urban LDCV are analysed, considering a wide set of environmental impact categories. The results show that the NMC111 battery has the highest impacts from production in most of the impact categories. Active cathode material, Aluminium, Copper, and energy use for battery production are the main contributors to the environmental impact. However, when vehicle application is investigated, NMC111-BEV shows lower environmental impacts, in all the impact categories, than ZEBRA-BEV. This is mainly due to the greater efficiency of the NMC111 battery during vehicle operation. Finally, when comparing BEVs to a diesel LDCV, the electric powertrains show advantages over the diesel one as far as global warming, abiotic depletion potential-fossil fuels, photochemical oxidation, and ozone layer depletion are concerned. However, the diesel LDCV performs better in almost all the other investigated impact categories.

Environmental Life Cycle Impacts of Automotive Batteries Based on a Literature Review

We compiled 50 publications from the years 2005–2020 about life cycle assessment (LCA) of Li-ion batteries to assess the environmental effects of production, use, and end of life for application in electric vehicles. Investigated LCAs showed for the production of a battery pack per kWh battery capacity a median of 280 kWh/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 200–500 kWh/kWh_bc) for the primary energy consumption and a median of 120 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 70–175 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc) for greenhouse gas emissions. We expect results for current batteries to be in the lower range. Over the lifetime of an electric vehicle, these emissions relate to 20 g CO2-eq/km (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 10–50 g CO2-eq/km). Considering recycling processes, greenhouse gas savings outweigh the negative environmental impacts of recycling and can reduce the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions by a median value of 20 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc (25%-quantile–75%-quantile: 5–29 kg CO2-eq/kWh_bc). Overall, many LCA results overestimated the environmental impact of cell manufacturing, due to the assessments of relatively small or underutilized production facilities. Material emissions, like from mining and especially processing from metals and the cathode paste, could have been underestimated, due to process-based assumptions and non-regionalized primary data. Second-life applications were often not considered.

Environmental and Economic Sustainability of Electric Vehicles: Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing Evaluation of Electricity Sources

The electro-mobility of vehicles could solve the negative effects of road transport, by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. However, some electric vehicles also have a negative impact on the environment related to the nature of electricity used. This paper aims to evaluate the electricity sources for electric vehicles using a Life Cycle Thinking approach. Life cycle assessment, using several midpoints and endpoint methods, highlighted that the most damaging sources were lignite and diesel, while hydropower, wind, and biomass were the most sustainable ones. Cumulative energy demand showed that biomass used the least energy (0.034 MJ eq.), but originates from 100% non-renewable sources. Lignite, which also comes from 100% non-renewable sources, used the most energy (17.791 MJ eq.). The lowest carbon footprints were for wind, biomass, and photovoltaic (<0.1 kg CO2 eq). Municipal waste incineration and natural gas had a medium impact, while lignite, coal, peat, and diesel had a high impact (>1.0 kg CO2 eq.). Considering life cycle costing, photovoltaic electricity generation was the most expensive (0.2107 USD/kWh) while natural gas the cheapest (0.0661 USD/kWh). Therefore, this study presents an integrated approach that may offer a valid tool for decision-makers, giving them the possibility to choose the electricity sources for electric vehicles.

Life Cycle Assessment of Classic and Innovative Batteries for Solar Home Systems in Europe

This paper presents an environmental sustainability assessment of residential user-scale energy systems, named solar home systems, encompassing their construction, operation, and end of life. The methodology adopted is composed of three steps, namely a design phase, a simulation of the solar home systems’ performance and a life cycle assessment. The analysis aims to point out the main advantages, features, and challenges of lithium-ion batteries, considered as a benchmark, compared with other innovative devices. As the environmental sustainability of these systems is affected by the solar radiation intensity during the year, a sensitivity analysis is performed varying the latitude of the installation site in Europe. For each site, both isolated and grid-connected solar home systems have been compared considering also the national electricity mix. A general overview of the results shows that, regardless of the installation site, solid state nickel cobalt manganese and nickel cobalt aluminium lithium-ion batteries are the most suitable choices in terms of sustainability. Remarkably, other novel devices, like sodium-ion batteries, are already competitive with them and have great potential. With these batteries, the solar home systems’ eco-profile is generally advantageous compared to the energy mix, especially in on-grid configurations, with some exceptions.

Life Cycle Assessment of Electric Vehicle Batteries: An Overview of Recent Literature

In electric and hybrid vehicles Life Cycle Assessments (LCAs), batteries play a central role and are in the spotlight of scientific community and public opinion. Automotive batteries constitute, together with the powertrain, the main differences between electric vehicles and internal combustion engine vehicles. For this reason, many decision makers and researchers wondered whether energy and environmental impacts from batteries production, can exceed the benefits generated during the vehicle’s use phase. In this framework, the purpose of the present literature review is to understand how large and variable the main impacts are due to automotive batteries’ life cycle, with particular attention to climate change impacts, and to support researchers with some methodological suggestions in the field of automotive batteries’ LCA. The results show that there is high variability in environmental impact assessment; CO2eq emissions per kWh of battery capacity range from 50 to 313 g CO2eq/kWh. Nevertheless, either using the lower or upper bounds of this range, electric vehicles result less carbon-intensive in their life cycle than corresponding diesel or petrol vehicles.

Bridging Tools to Better Understand Environmental Performances and Raw Materials Supply of Traction Batteries in the Future EU Fleet

Sustainable and smart mobility and associated energy systems are key to decarbonise the EU and develop a clean, resource efficient, circular and carbon-neutral future. To achieve the 2030 and 2050 targets, technological and societal changes are needed. This transition will inevitably change the composition of the future EU fleet, with an increasing share of electric vehicles (xEVs). To assess the potential contribution of lithium-ion traction batteries (LIBs) in decreasing the environmental burdens of EU mobility, several aspects should be included. Even though environmental assessments of batteries along their life-cycle have been already conducted using life-cycle assessment, a single tool does not likely provide a complete overview of such a complex system. Complementary information is provided by material flow analysis and criticality assessment, with emphasis on supply risk. Bridging complementary aspects can better support decision-making, especially when different strategies are simultaneously tackled. The results point out that the future life-cycle GWP of traction LIBs will likely improve, mainly due to more environmental-friendly energy mix and improved recycling. Even though second-use will postpone available materials for recycling, both these end-of-life strategies allow keeping the values of materials in the circular economy, with recycling also contributing to mitigate the supply risk of Lithium and Nickel.

Variability in Measured Real-World Operational Energy Use and Emission Rates of a Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle

Compared to comparably sized conventional light duty gasoline vehicles (CLDGVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) may offer benefits of improved energy economy, reduced emissions, and the flexibility to use electricity as an energy source. PHEVs operate in either charge depleting (CD) or charge sustaining (CS) mode; the engine has the ability to turn on and off; and the engine can have multiple cold starts. A method is demonstrated for quantifying the real-world activity, energy use, and emissions of PHEVs, taking into account these operational characteristics and differences in electricity generation resource mix. A 2013 Toyota Prius plug-in was measured using a portable emission measurement system. Vehicle specific power (VSP) based modal average energy use and emission rates are inferred to assess trends in energy use and emissions with respect to engine load and for comparisons of engine on versus engine off, and cold start versus hot stabilized running. The results show that, compared to CLDGVs, the PHEV operating in CD mode has improved energy efficiency and lower CO2, CO, HC, NOx, and PM2.5 emission rates for a wide range of power generation fuel mixes. However, PHEV energy use and emission rates are highly variable, with periods of relatively high on-road emission rates related to cold starts.

Environmental analysis of a nano-grid: A Life Cycle Assessment

Renewable energy sources are fundamental to face the problem of climate changes. Unfortunately, some resources, such as wind and solar radiation, have fluctuations affecting the electrical grids stability. Energy storage systems can be used for a smart energy management to accumulate power from renewable sources. For such reason, these devices play a key role to achieve a sustainable electric system. On the other hand, they are affected by some environmental drawbacks mainly connected with the depletion of rare and expensive materials. Based on these considerations, in this study a nano-grid composed by a photovoltaic plant, a backup generator and an energy storage system is analysed by an environmental Life Cycle Assessment approach. A Solar Home System is designed, and its environmental profile is evaluated considering several Lithium-ion batteries. Among them, nickel-cobalt aluminium oxide cells resulted to be the most suitable solution for a Solar Home System (46.66 Pts/MWh). Moreover, a sensitivity analysis of the Solar Home System is performed and a hybrid energy storage plant integrating hydrogen and batteries is proposed to face the problem of seasonal solar radiation variability. Four scenarios having different gas pressure levels and lifespan of the devices are considered. Results show that currently the most sustainable configuration is represented by the Solar Home System, but in the future a hybrid nano-grid equipped with 700 bar hydrogen storage might be the best off-grid configuration for minimizing the impact on the environment (37.77 Pts/MWh). Extending the perspective of our analysis to future on-grid potential configurations, an efficient connection of the Solar Home System with a smart-grid is assessed as it looks more sustainable than other off-grid solutions (22.81 Pts/MWh).

Economic, energy and environmental impact of coal-to-electricity policy in China: A dynamic recursive CGE study

In north China, many rural and urban residents still use coal for heating in winter. However, such method would result in a large amount of GHG emissions. China intends to change the heating method of its citizens from coal burning to electric heating to save energy, reduce emissions, which is called the project of Coal to Electricity (CtE). A dynamic recursive computable general equilibrium model is applied to analyze the real effect if the project is widely promoted in China. We found that CtE project is effective in reducing SO₂ and NO_x emission than CO₂ emissions. In essence, energy substitution is not energy-saving, so the contribution to CO₂ reduction of CtE project is limited. There is a certain co-benefit between CtE project and other energy saving policies (new energy generation, improving heating efficiency and building energy saving etc.). The findings indicate that single CtE policy can only bring better air quality. However, with other energy saving policies, CtE project can not only bring NO_x and SO₂ reduction, but also lead to less CO₂ emissions and more convenient life. Multiple emission reduction measures are suggested to maximize the reduction effects of these policies.

Recoverability Analysis of Critical Materials from Electric Vehicle Lithium-Ion Batteries through a Dynamic Fleet-Based Approach for Japan

This study aims to propose a model to forecast the volume of critical materials that can be recovered from lithium-ion batteries (LiB) through the recycling of end of life electric vehicles (EV). To achieve an environmentally sustainable society, the wide-scale adoption of EV seems to be necessary. Here, the dependency of the vehicle on its batteries has an essential role. The efficient recycling of LiB to minimize its raw material supply risk but also the economic impact of its production process is going to be essential. Initially, this study forecasted the vehicle fleet, sales, and end of life vehicles based on system dynamics modeling considering data of scrapping rates of vehicles by year of life. Then, the volumes of the critical materials supplied for LiB production and recovered from recycling were identified, considering variations in the size/type of batteries. Finally, current limitations to achieve closed-loop production in Japan were identified. The results indicate that the amount of scrapped electric vehicle batteries (EVB) will increase by 55 times from 2018 to 2050, and that 34% of lithium (Li), 50% of cobalt (Co), 28% of nickel (Ni), and 52% of manganese (Mn) required for the production of new LiB could be supplied by recovered EVB in 2035.

Are Personal Electric Vehicles Sustainable? A Hybrid E-Bike Case Study

As the title suggests, the sustainability of personal electric vehicles is in question. In terms of life span, range, comfort, and safety, electric vehicles, such as e-cars and e-buses, are much better than personal electric vehicles, such as e-bikes. However, electric vehicles present greater costs and increased energy consumption. Also, the impact on environment, health, and fitness is more negative than that of personal electric vehicles. Since transportation vehicles can benefit from hybrid electric storage solutions, we address the following question: Is it possible to reach a compromise between sustainability and technology constraints by implementing a low-cost hybrid personal electric vehicle with improved life span and range that is also green? Our methodology consists of life cycle assessment and performance analyses tackling the facets of the sustainability challenges (economy, society, and environment) and limitations of the electric storage solutions (dependent on technology and application) presented herein. The hybrid electric storage system of the proposed hybrid e-bike is made of batteries, supercapacitors, and corresponding power electronics, allowing the optimal control of power flows between the system’s components and application’s actuators. Our hybrid e-bike costs less than a normal e-bike (half or less), does not depend on battery operation for short periods of time (a few seconds), has better autonomy than most personal electric vehicles (more than 60 km), has a greater life span (a few years more than a normal e-bike), has better energy efficiency (more than 90%), and is much cleaner due to the reduced number of batteries replaced per life time (one instead of two or three).

Superior "green" electrode materials for secondary batteries: through the footprint family indicators to analyze their environmental friendliness

As secondary batteries are becoming the popular production of industry, especial for lithium ion batteries (LIBs), the degree of environmental friendliness will gather increasing attention to their products of the whole life cycle. The research combines the life cycle assessment (LCA) and footprint family definition to establish a framework to calculate the footprint family of secondary battery materials. Through the method, we calculated the values of carbon footprint, water footprint, and ecological footprint about this eight kinds of secondary cathode battery materials with Ni-MH, Li_1.2Ni_0.2Mn_0.6O₂/C, LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂/C, LiNi₀.₈Co_0.2O₂/C, LiFePO₄/C, LiFe_0.98Mn_0.02PO₄/C, FeF₃(H₂O)₃/C, and NaFePO₄/C. When comparing and analyzing their values in each footprint, it can summarize the evaluation method for some secondary batteries by footprint indicators and construct the evaluation system. Through the comprehensive evaluation of footprint family system, the NaFePO₄/C battery gets the best performance of three main footprints when combining 1 kg of cathode materials, while Ni-MH is opposite. Hence, among these eight batteries environmental impacts evaluation, the NaFePO₄/C battery is regarded as the superior "green" battery, albeit the current application is restricted because of the synthesis limitation on large scale and energy density of storage. In LIBs comparison, the FeF₃(H₂O)₃ material shows its characteristics of environmental friendliness, which is expected to be a greener battery material of LIB. In conventional LIBs, the iron-containing cathode materials show lower environmental burden than ternary cathode materials. We can reduce environmental impacts through developing new advanced materials and reducing the content of high sensitivity element in raw materials.

Methodological Approaches to End-Of-Life Modelling in Life Cycle Assessments of Lithium-Ion Batteries

This study presents a review of how the end-of-life (EOL) stage is modelled in life cycle assessment (LCA) studies of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Twenty-five peer-reviewed journal and conference papers that consider the whole LIB life cycle and describe their EOL modelling approach sufficiently were analyzed. The studies were categorized based on two archetypal EOL modelling approaches in LCA: The cutoff (no material recovery, possibly secondary material input) and EOL recycling (material recovery, only primary material input) approaches. It was found that 19 of the studies followed the EOL recycling approach and 6 the cutoff approach. In addition, almost a third of the studies deviated from the expected setup of the two methods by including both material recovery and secondary material input. Such hybrid approaches may lead to double counting of recycling benefits by both including secondary input (as in the cutoff approach) and substituting primary materials (as in the EOL recycling approach). If the archetypal EOL modelling approaches are not followed, it is imperative that the modelling choices are well-documented and motivated to avoid double counting that leads to over- or underestimations of the environmental impacts of LIBs. Also, 21 studies model hydrometallurgical treatment, and 17 completely omit waste collection.

How will second-use of batteries affect stocks and flows in the EU? A model for traction Li-ion batteries

Although not yet developed in Europe, second-use of traction batteries enables an extension of their lifetime and potentially improves life cycle environmental performance. Li-ion batteries (LIBs) offer the most promising chemistry for traction batteries in electric vehicles (xEVs) and for second-use. Due to the novelty of the topic and the expected increase of e-mobility in the next decades, more efforts to understand the potential consequences of second-use of batteries from different perspectives are needed. This paper develops a dynamic, parameterised Material Flow Analysis (MFA) model to estimate stocks and flows of LIBs after their removal from xEVs along the specific processes of the european value-chain. Direct reuse, second-use and recycling are included in the model and parameters make it customisable and updatable. Focusing on full and plug-in electric vehicles, LIBs and energy storage capacity flows are estimated. Stocks and flows of two embedded materials relevant for Europe were also assessed (cobalt and lithium). Results showed that second-use corresponds to a better exploitation of LIBs' storage capacity. Meanwhile, Co and Li in-use stocks are locked in LIBs and their recovery is delayed by second-use; depending on the slower/faster development of second-use, the amount of Co available for recycling in 2030 ranges between 9% and 15% of Co demand and between 7 and 16% for Li. Uncertainty of inputs is addressed through sensitivity analysis. A variety of actors can use this MFA model to enhance knowledge of second-use of batteries in Europe and to support the effective management of LIBs along their value-chain.