Fast mapping short and long words: Examining the influence of phonological short-term memory and receptive vocabulary in children with developmental language disorder

The contribution of the amount of linguistic exposure to bilingual language development: Longitudinal evidence from preschool years

This study examined the influence of linguistic input on the development of productive and receptive skills across three fundamental language domains: lexico-semantics, syntax, and phonology. Seventy-one (35 female) Basque-Spanish bilingual children were assessed at three time points (Fall 2018, Summer 2019, Winter 2021), between 4 and 6 years of age, by specifically examining language knowledge and spontaneous language use in each language. A direct impact of the amount of linguistic exposure on the longitudinal growth of lexico-semantic and syntactic abilities was observed in both languages. While phonological skills were not directly influenced by exposure, they were more proficient in the more exposed language. The use of lexically diverse and syntactically rich utterances developed relatively later than language knowledge, both supported by the amount of linguistic exposure.

Assessing vocabulary acquisition using a fast-mapping task in an Android application: A pilot study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to explore whether a fast mapping task embedded in an Android application (FastMApp) is a valid tool to assess referent selection abilities in Spanish-speaking children aged between 18 and 30 months. Traditional assessment tools for lexical development use static quantitative methods that assign children a final score to represent their overall vocabulary level. These methods fail to provide insights into the learning process, despite their potential relevance for clinical and educational purposes.

METHOD

Sixty Spanish-speaking children participated in this study. They completed the FastMApp (a 22-trials' fast mapping noun task including 4- and 5-item trials, with one unknown object), and their caregivers rated their child's vocabulary on a parent-rated vocabulary inventory measure.

RESULT

The data show a high percentage of responses to the task, indicating that the children were actively complied with the task. The scores for known labels are significantly higher compared to unknown labels, and the scores for 4-item trials are significantly higher compared to 5-item trials. We observed a strong and significant relationship between the scores in this task and the scores on the parent-rated vocabulary inventory measure.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that FastMApp is suitable for assessing early vocabulary acquisition in Spanish-speaking children.

Abilities of children with developmental language disorders in perceiving phonological, grammatical, and semantic structures

This study aims to investigate the perception of phonological, grammatical, and semantic structures by 8 children (age range: 8;2-9;5) with developmental language disorders (DLD). Another 8 age-matched (age range: 8;4-10;0) typically developing (TD) children served as controls. The results demonstrated that children with DLD had lower performance than children with TD in the phonology and grammar tests, corroborating earlier findings, which reported difficulties of children with DLD in discriminating voicing contrasts and perceiving grammatical structures. However, both groups had similar performance in the semantic test. The absence of semantic atypicality can be explained possibly due to the simplicity of the sentences included in the test. The study offers important clinical implications for the identification and treatment of the disorder.

Music skills of Spanish-speaking children with developmental language disorder

BACKGROUND

According to temporal sampling theory, deficits in rhythm processing contribute to both language and music difficulties in children with developmental language disorder (DLD). Evidence for this proposition is derived mainly from studies conducted in stress-timed languages, but the results may differ in languages with different rhythm features (e.g., syllable-timed languages).

AIMS

This research aimed to study a previously unexamined topic, namely, the music skills of children with DLD who speak Spanish (a syllable-timed language), and to analyze the possible relationships between the language and music skills of these children.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

Two groups of 18 Spanish-speaking children with DLD and 19 typically-developing peers matched for chronological age completed a set of language tests. Their rhythm discrimination, melody discrimination and music memory skills were also assessed.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

Children with DLD exhibited significantly lower performance than their typically-developing peers on all three music subtests. Music and language skills were significantly related in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

The results suggest that similar music difficulties may be found in children with DLD whether they speak stress-timed or syllable-timed languages. The relationships found between music and language skills may pave the way for the design of possible language intervention programs based on music stimuli.

Receptive vocabulary, memory span, and speech articulation in Pakistani children with developmental language disorders

This study aimed to find the association of receptive vocabulary in the development of speech and language among school-going children (4-13 years) with language disorders. On the basis of non-verbal receptive vocabulary and percentage correct consonants (PCC) scores, children from public schools in Punjab, Pakistan with speech and language issues were separated into three groups; Speech sound disordered (SSD, N = 15), Language Impaired (LI) comorbid with SSD (N = 42) and typically developed (TD, N = 15). Urdu version of Peabody picture vocabulary test, fourth edition (U-PPVT-4), Digit memory test (DMT), and Test for assessment of articulation and phonology in Urdu (TAAPU) were used to assess non-verbal receptive vocabulary, Short-term memory (STM), Working memory (WM), and SSD. Correlation and regression analyses were performed to find the association of receptive vocabulary with other measures used. Receptive vocabulary, STM, WM, omission, substitution, and PCC scores were significantly different (p < 0.01) when compared among LI+SSD, SSD, and TD groups. Regression analysis showed that receptive vocabulary was significantly associated with STM and WM in the LI+SSD group. A positive correlation was found between the U-PPVT-4 standard score with STM and WM for LI+SSD and SSD groups. Our findings in Urdu-speaking children suggested that STM and WM were less developed in children with speech and language impairments. Moreover, children with speech and language deficits not only had weaker receptive vocabulary but also attention should be given to improving STM and WM that contribute to LI.

How we measure language skills of children at scale: A call to move beyond domain-specific tests as a proxy for language

PURPOSE

The aim of this research note is to encourage child language researchers and clinicians to give careful consideration to the use of domain-specific tests as a proxy for language; particularly in the context of large-scale studies and for the identification of language disorder in clinical practice.

METHOD

We report on data leveraged through the prospective Raine Study cohort. Participants included 1626 children aged 10 years (n = 104 with developmental language disorder [DLD] and n = 1522 without DLD). We assessed the predictive utility of common language measures including subtests of a standardised omnibus language assessment, non-verbal intelligence, and a domain-specific receptive vocabulary test.

RESULT

Children with DLD performed within the average range on a measure of non-verbal intelligence (z = -0.86) and receptive vocabulary (z = -0.38), as well as two out of the six subtests on the omnibus language assessment (zs > -1.50). The magnitude of the predictive relationship between language assessments and the likelihood of a child meeting criteria for DLD at 10 years was assessed using a logistic regression model, which was significant: χ²(8) = 16.91, p = 0.031. Semantic Relationships (OR = 1.13, CI = 1.04 - 1.23, p = .004), Formulated Sentences (OR = 1.07, CI = 1.01 - 1.13, p = .028), Recalling Sentences (OR = 1.20, CI = 1.15 - 1.26, p < .001), and Sentence Assembly (OR = 1.17, CI = 1.07 - 1.30, p = .001) were significant predictors of DLD.

CONCLUSION

Domain-specific language assessments, particularly those testing receptive vocabulary, may overestimate the language ability of children with DLD. Caution is urged when using such tests by clinicians and researchers, especially those measuring language skills of children at scale. Future directions for measuring the functional impact of DLD are presented.

Direct Instruction Improves Word Learning for Children With Developmental Language Disorder

PURPOSE

The current study compared the effects of direct instruction versus indirect exposure on multiple aspects of novel word learning for children with developmental language disorder (DLD) and children with typical language development (TLD).

METHOD

Participants included 36 children with DLD and 45 children with TLD. All children were in the first grade and 6-8 years of age (Mdn = 7 years; 2 months). Using a between-subjects design, children were randomly assigned to be exposed to novel words and their unfamiliar referents via either direct instruction (each referent presented in isolation with an explicit goal of learning) or indirect exposure (multiple referents presented with the goal of answering yes/no questions).

RESULTS

In alternative forced-choice measures of recognition, children with DLD were less accurate than their TLD peers in linking words to referents, encoding semantic categories for words, and encoding detailed representations of word forms. These differences in word learning were accounted for by a constellation of cognitive measures, including receptive vocabulary, phonological memory, visuospatial memory, and sustained attention. All children were similarly accurate in retaining word forms over a 24- to 48-hr delay. Children with TLD were more accurate in all aspects of word learning following direct instruction compared to indirect exposure. Benefits from direct instruction were observed for children with DLD in link and semantic, but not word form, learning.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that vocabulary interventions with direct instruction can help children with DLD learn some, but not all, aspects of novel words. Additional support is necessary to help children with DLD encode rich phonological representations.

Phonological characteristics of novel gesture production in children with developmental language disorder: Longitudinal findings

Children with developmental language disorder (DLD; aka specific language impairment) are characterized based on deficits in language, especially morphosyntax, in the absence of other explanatory conditions. However, deficits in speech production, as well as fine and gross motor skill, have also been observed, implicating both the linguistic and motor systems. Situated at the intersection of these domains, and providing insight into both, is manual gesture. In the current work, we asked whether children with DLD showed phonological deficits in the production of novel gestures and whether gesture production at 4 years of age is related to language and motor outcomes two years later. Twenty-eight children (14 with DLD) participated in a two-year longitudinal novel gesture production study. At the first and final time points, language and fine motor skills were measured and gestures were analyzed for phonological feature accuracy, including handshape, path, and orientation. Results indicated that, while early deficits in phonological accuracy did not persist for children with DLD, all children struggled with orientation while handshape was the most accurate. Early handshape and orientation accuracy were also predictive of later language skill, but only for the children with DLD. Theoretical and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

The Challenge of Rich Vocabulary Instruction for Children With Developmental Language Disorder

Purpose The aims of the study were to explore responses of children with developmental language disorder (DLD) to rich vocabulary instruction and to identify potential factors that contribute to outcomes. Method Children with DLD participated in a language intervention embedded within a science camp. Using parent and clinician reports, standardized tests, probes, notes, and video, we derived descriptions of seven of the campers who received a vocabulary intervention that incorporated principles of rich instruction. We present them here as a case series. Results Five cases responded to the intervention with modest gains in Tier 2 science vocabulary and science knowledge. One case demonstrated no response, and another was unable to complete the intervention. The latter two cases presented with triple risks: DLD, executive function deficits, and stressors associated with poverty. In comparison, the best responder also lived in poverty and had DLD, but he had intact executive function, strengths in extant vocabulary, stronger knowledge of science, better engagement in the science and language intervention activities, and was older. Other factors that seemed to contribute to outcomes included the complexity of the word forms and dosage. Conclusions Translating research on rich instruction to clinical practice is challenging. This case series motivated hypotheses about the nature of the challenge and what to do about it, the primary one being that the modest success of rich vocabulary instruction for children with DLD is not a limitation of the approach itself but rather a reflection of the difficulty of delivering the intervention while tailoring the targets, approach, and dosage to the needs of individual children with DLD. Supplemental Material https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.13667699.

Spontaneous productions of infinitive clauses by English-speaking children with and without specific language impairment

As a group, children with specific language impairment (SLI) have presented with lower levels of proficiency with infinitive clauses relative to comparison groups with typical language (TL). The presence of considerable individual variability within those affected by SLI, however, remains unexplained. Furthermore, the status of infinitive clause productions in children with language impairments that do not meet criteria for SLI, because of either low nonverbal abilities or other concomitant conditions, is unknown. Previous studies focused on children with SLI and have not included children who would fit into a broader developmental language disorder (DLD) designation. In this study, spontaneous language samples were collected on 30 children with DLD and 30 children with typical language skills, including those with low nonverbal abilities or other neurodevelopmental disorders (age range: 5;1-7;7). Samples were analyzed to examine potential predictors of children's infinitive clause use and their infinitive TO omission rates. Significant group differences were found for the number and accuracy of infinitive clauses produced. Consistent with previous reports examining children with SLI, considerable variability was found across cases of DLD. Maternal education and mean length of utterance (MLU) were significant predictors for children's infinitive clause use. Finite verb morphology composite scores and MLU were significant predictors of children's infinitive TO omission rates.

Word learning and verbal working memory in children with developmental language disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Previous research into word learning in children with developmental language disorder (DLD) indicates that the learning of word forms and meanings, rather than form-referent links, is problematic. This difficulty appears to arise with impaired encoding, while retention of word knowledge remains intact. Evidence also suggests that word learning skills may be related to verbal working memory. We aimed to substantiate these findings in the current study by exploring word learning over a series of days.

METHODS

Fifty children with DLD (mean age 6; 11, 72% male) and 54 age-matched typically developing (TD) children (mean age 6; 10, 56% male) were taught eight novel words across a four-day word learning protocol. Day 1 measured encoding, Days 2 and 3 measured re-encoding, and Day 4 assessed retention. At each day, word learning success was evaluated using Naming, Recognition, Description, and Identification tasks.

RESULTS

Children with DLD showed comparable performance to the TD group on the Identification task, indicating an intact ability to learn the form-referent links. In contrast, children with DLD performed significantly worse for Naming and Recognition (signifying an impaired ability to learn novel word forms), and for Description, indicating problems establishing new word meanings. These deficits for the DLD group were apparent at Days 1, 2, and 3 of testing, indicating impairments with initial encoding and re-encoding; however, the DLD and TD groups demonstrated a similar rate of learning. All children found the retention assessments at Day 4 difficult, and there were no significant group differences. Finally, verbal working memory emerged as a significant moderator of performance on the Naming and Recognition tasks, such that children with DLD and poor verbal working memory had the lowest levels of accuracy.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that children with DLD struggle with learning novel word forms and meanings, but are unimpaired in their ability to establish new form-referent links. The findings suggest that the word learning deficit may be attributed to problems with encoding, rather than with retention, of new word knowledge; however, further exploration is required given the poor performance of both groups for retention testing. Furthermore, we found evidence that an impaired ability to learn word forms may only be apparent in children who have DLD and low levels of verbal working memory.

IMPLICATIONS

When working with children with DLD, speech-language pathologists should assess word learning using tasks that evaluate the ability to learn word forms, meanings, and form-referent links to develop a profile of individual word learning strengths and weaknesses. Clinicians should also assess verbal working memory to identify children at particular risk of word learning deficits. Future research should explore the notion of optimal intervention intensity for facilitating word learning in children with poor language and verbal working memory.

Within and Across Language Predictors of Word Learning Processes in Dual Language Learners

This study investigated the relation between Dual Language Learners' (N = 90) vocabulary and grammar comprehension and word learning processes in preschool (aged 3-through-5 years). Of interest was whether: (a) performance in Spanish correlated with performance in English within each domain; and (b) comprehension predicted novel word learning within and across languages. Dual-language experience was evaluated as a potential moderator. Hierarchical linear modeling revealed stronger predictive associations within each language than across languages. Across languages, results varied by experience and domain. Structural sensitivity theory suggests exposure to two languages heightens awareness of parameters along which languages vary and provides a framework for interpreting complex associations within and across languages. Knowledge from one language may influence learning in both.

The word learning profile of adults with developmental language disorder

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Previous investigations of word learning problems among people with developmental language disorder suggest that encoding, not retention, is the primary deficit. We aimed to replicate this finding; test the prediction that word form, not the linking of form to referent, is particularly problematic; and determine whether women with developmental language disorder are better word learners than men with developmental language disorder.

METHODS

Twenty adults with developmental language disorder and 19 age-, sex-, and education-matched peers with typical language development attempted to learn 15 words by retrieval practice. Their retention was measured one day-, one week-, and one month after training.

RESULTS

The participants with developmental language disorder required more exposures to the word-referent pairs than the participants with typical language development to reach mastery. While training to mastery, they made more errors in word form production, alone or in combination with errors in linking forms to the correct referents, but the number of no attempts and pure link errors did not differ by group. Women demonstrated stronger retention of the words than men at all intervals. The developmental language disorder and typical language development groups did not differ at the one-day- and one-month retention intervals but the developmental language disorder group was weaker at the one-week interval. Review via retrieval practice at the one-day and one-week interval enhanced retention at the one-month interval; the review at one week was more beneficial than the review at one day. Women benefitted more from the review opportunities than men but the developmental language disorder and typical language development groups did not differ.

CONCLUSIONS

Adults with developmental language disorder present with weaknesses in the encoding of new words but retention is a relative strength. Encoding word forms is especially challenging but encoding word-to-referent links is not. We interpret this profile, and the evidence of a female advantage, as consistent with the Procedural Circuit Deficit Hypothesis.

IMPLICATIONS

When treating a client with developmental language disorder whose goal is to increase vocabulary knowledge, the interventionist should anticipate the need for multiple exposures to new words within activities that highlight the forms of the words and support their memory and production. Periodic review should serve to support long-term retention.