Polymeric micelles drug delivery system in oncology

Preparation and in vitro evaluation of pH and glutathione dual-responsive drug delivery system based on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose

Stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems based on sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (NaCMC) for drug release encounter inherent challenges. In this research, a novel pH and glutathione (GSH) dual-responsive system, CPT-S-S-NaCMC@ZIF-8/SP-PEG, was constructed. Firstly, the prodrug CPT-S-S-OH was synthesized and combined with NaCMC to form GSH-responsive micelles CPT-S-S-NaCMC, significantly enhancing the drug loading and grafting rates to 63.79 % and 91.99 %, respectively. Subsequently, zinc ions and dimethylimidazole can be assembled into porous materials (ZIF-8) on the surface of the micelles. This system exhibits dual pH-GSH responsiveness and effectively reduces the drug release from 84.76 % to 28.71 % at pH = 7.4. Moreover, incorporating pH-responsive spiropyran (SP)-modified polyethylene glycol (PEG) can reduce drug leakage to 16.09 % at pH = 7.4 and exhibit good fluorescence intensity at 722 nm.

Nanomedicines in diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancers: an updated review

Prostate cancer (PC) is the third most common male cancer in the world, which occurs due to various mutations leading to the loss of chromatin structure. There are multiple treatments for this type of cancer, of which chemotherapy is one of the most important. Sometimes, a combination of different treatments, such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, are used to prevent tumor recurrence. Among other treatments, androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) can be mentioned, which has had promising results. One of the drawbacks of chemotherapy and ADT treatments is that they are not targeted to the tumor tissue. For this reason, their use can cause extensive side effects. Treatments based on nanomaterials, known as nanomedicine, have attracted much attention today. Nanoparticles (NPs) are one of the main branches of nanomedicine, and they can be made of different materials such as polymer, metal, and carbon, each of which has distinct characteristics. In addition to NPs, nanovesicles (NVs) also have therapeutic applications in PC. In treating PC, synthetic NVs (liposomes, micelles, and nanobubbles) or produced from cells (exosomes) can be used. In addition to the role that NPs and NVs have in treating PC, due to being targeted, they can be used to diagnose PC and check the treatment process. Knowing the characteristics of nanomedicine-based treatments can help design new treatments and improve researchers' understanding of tumor biology and its rapid diagnosis. In this study, we will discuss conventional and nanomedicine-based treatments. The results of these studies show that the use of NPs and NVs in combination with conventional treatments has higher efficacy in tumor treatment than the individual use of each of them.

Functionalized Polymeric Micelles for Targeted Cancer Therapy: Steps from Conceptualization to Clinical Trials

Cancer is still ranked among the top three causes of death in the 30- to 69-year-old age group in most countries and carries considerable societal and macroeconomic costs that differ depending on the cancer type, geography, and patient gender. Despite advances in several pharmacological approaches, the lack of stability and specificity, dose-related toxicity, and limited bioavailability of chemotherapy (standard therapy) pose major obstacles in cancer treatment, with multidrug resistance being a driving factor in chemotherapy failure. The past three decades have been the stage for intense research activity on the topic of nanomedicine, which has resulted in many nanotherapeutics with reduced toxicity, increased bioavailability, and improved pharmacokinetics and therapeutic efficacy employing smart drug delivery systems (SDDSs). Polymeric micelles (PMs) have become an auspicious DDS for medicinal compounds, being used to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs that also exhibit substantial toxicity. Through preclinical animal testing, PMs improved pharmacokinetic profiles and increased efficacy, resulting in a higher safety profile for therapeutic drugs. This review focuses on PMs that are already in clinical trials, traveling the pathways from preclinical to clinical studies until introduction to the market.

pH-Sensitive Fluorescent Marker Based on Rhodamine 6G Conjugate with Its FRET/PeT Pair in "Smart" Polymeric Micelles for Selective Imaging of Cancer Cells

Cancer cells are known to create an acidic microenvironment (the Warburg effect). At the same time, fluorescent dyes can be sensitive to pH, showing a sharp increase or decrease in fluorescence depending on pH. However, modern applications, such as confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), set additional requirements for such fluorescent markers to be of practical use, namely, high quantum yield, low bleaching, minimal quenching in the cell environment, and minimal overlap with auto-fluorophores. R6G could be the perfect match for these requirements, but its fluorescence is not pH-dependent. We have attempted to develop an R6G conjugate with its FRET or PeT pair that would grant it pH sensitivity in the desired range (5.5-7.5) and enable the selective targeting of tumor cells, thus improving CLSM imaging. Covalent conjugation of R6G with NBD using a spermidine (spd) linker produced a pH-sensitive FRET effect but within the pH range of 7.0-9.0. Shifting this effect to the target pH range of 5.5-7.5 appeared possible by incorporating the R6G-spd-NBD conjugate within a "smart" polymeric micelle based on chitosan grafted with lipoic acid. In our previous studies, one could conclude that the polycationic properties of chitosan could make this pH shift possible. As a result, the micellar form of the NBD-spd-R6G fluorophore demonstrates a sharp ignition of fluorescence by 40%per1 pH unit in the pH range from 7.5 to 5. Additionally, "smart" polymeric micelles based on chitosan allow the label to selectively target tumor cells. Due to the pH sensitivity of the fluorophore NBD-spd-R6G and the selective targeting of cancer cells, the efficient visualization of A875 and K562 cells was achieved. CLSM imaging showed that the dye actively penetrates cancer cells (A875 and K562), while minimal accumulation and low fluorophore emission are observed in normal cells (HEK293T). It is noteworthy that by using "smart" polymeric micelles based on polyelectrolytes of different charges and structures, we create the possibility of regulating the pH dependence of the fluorescence in the desired interval, which means that these "smart" polymeric micelles can be applied to the visualization of a variety of cell types, organelles, and other structures.

Advances in active targeting of ligand-directed polymeric nanomicelles via exploiting overexpressed cellular receptors for precise nanomedicine

Many of the utilized drugs which already exist in the pharmaceutical sector are hydrophobic in nature. These drugs are characterized by being poorly absorbed and difficult to formulate in aqueous environments with low bioavailability, which could result in consuming high and frequent doses in order to fulfil the required therapeutic effect. As a result, there is a decisive demand to find modern alternatives to overcome all these drawbacks. Self-assembling polymeric nanomicelles (PMs) with their unique structure appear to be a fascinating choice as a pharmaceutical carrier system for improving the solubility & bioavailability of many drugs. PMs as drug carriers have many advantages including suitable size, high stability, prolonged circulation time, elevated cargo capacity and controlled therapeutic release. Otherwise, the pathological features of some diseased cells, like cancer, allow PMs with particle size <200 nm to be passively uptaken via enhanced permeability and retention phenomenon (EPR). However, the passive targeting approach was proven to be insufficient in many cases. Consequently, the therapeutic efficiency of these PMs can be further reinforced by enhancing their cellular internalization via incorporating targeting ligands. These targeting ligands can enhance the assemblage of loaded cargos in the intended tissues via receptor-mediated endocytosis through exploiting receptors robustly expressed on the exterior of the intended tissue while minimizing their toxic effects. In this review, the up-to-date approaches of harnessing active targeting ligands to exploit certain overexpressed receptors will be summarized concerning the functionalization of the exterior of PMs for ameliorating their targeting potential in the scope of nanomedicine.

The Bright Side of Curcumin: A Narrative Review of Its Therapeutic Potential in Cancer Management

Curcumin, a polyphenolic compound derived from Curcuma longa, exhibits significant therapeutic potential in cancer management. This review explores curcumin's mechanisms of action, the challenges related to its bioavailability, and its enhancement through modern technology and approaches. Curcumin demonstrates strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, contributing to its ability to neutralize free radicals and inhibit inflammatory mediators. Its anticancer effects are mediated by inducing apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, and interfering with tumor growth pathways in various colon, pancreatic, and breast cancers. However, its clinical application is limited by its poor bioavailability due to its rapid metabolism and low absorption. Novel delivery systems, such as curcumin-loaded hydrogels and nanoparticles, have shown promise in improving curcumin bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. Additionally, photodynamic therapy has emerged as a complementary approach, where light exposure enhances curcumin's anticancer effects by modulating molecular pathways crucial for tumor cell growth and survival. Studies highlight that combining low concentrations of curcumin with visible light irradiation significantly boosts its antitumor efficacy compared to curcumin alone. The interaction of curcumin with cytochromes or drug transporters may play a crucial role in altering the pharmacokinetics of conventional medications, which necessitates careful consideration in clinical settings. Future research should focus on optimizing delivery mechanisms and understanding curcumin's pharmacokinetics to fully harness its therapeutic potential in cancer treatment.

Review on novel targeted enzyme drug delivery systems: enzymosomes

The goal of this review is to present enzymosomes as an innovative means for site-specific drug delivery. Enzymosomes make use of an enzyme's special characteristics, such as its capacity to accelerate the reaction rate and bind to a particular substrate at a regulated rate. Enzymosomes are created when an enzyme forms a covalent linkage with a liposome or lipid vesicle surface. To construct enzymosomes with specialized activities, enzymes are linked using acylation, direct conjugation, physical adsorption, and encapsulation techniques. By reducing the negative side effects of earlier treatment techniques and exhibiting efficient medication release, these cutting-edge drug delivery systems improve long-term sickness treatments. They could be a good substitute for antiplatelet medication, gout treatment, and other traditional medicines. Recently developed supramolecular vesicular delivery systems called enzymosomes have the potential to improve drug targeting, physicochemical characteristics, and ultimately bioavailability in the pharmaceutical industry. Enzymosomes have advantages over narrow-therapeutic index pharmaceuticals as focusing on their site of action enhances both their pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic profiles. Additionally, it reduces changes in normal enzymatic activity, which enhances the half-life of an enzyme and accomplishes enzyme activity on specific locations.

Effectiveness of Semecarpus anacardium Linn. fruits in cancer and inflammatory diseases: A mini review

BACKGROUND

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. (SCA) fruits are found in India's sub-Himalayan, tropical, and central regions and have been utilized for centuries in traditional Indian medicine to treat various ailments. In recent times, a growing body of research has emerged indicating that the extracts and active components found in SCA fruits possess qualities that can potentially inhibit the development of cancer and inflammatory markers.

PURPOSE

This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the existing literature on the pharmacological mechanisms underlying the effects of extracts and phytochemicals of SCA fruits in cellular, animal models, and clinical trials of cancer and inflammatory diseases.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted utilizing several databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar, preprint platforms, and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews using the keywords "Semecarpus anacardium", "Anti-inflammatory," and "cancer". The collection of articles started with establishing the database and continued until April 2024.

RESULTS

Out of 1130 retrieved database records, 316 pertained to systematic reviews. The remaining 814 records focused on examining the anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties of SCA fruits. In the course of these investigations, the four primary cancer types linked to SCA fruits are identified as lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, breast cancer, and blood cancer.

CONCLUSION

The findings will provide more support for investigating SCA fruits in cancer treatment and will furnish thorough reference data and recommendations for future studies on this botanical medication.

Insights into Targeted and Stimulus-Responsive Nanocarriers for Brain Cancer Treatment

Brain cancers, especially glioblastoma multiforme, are associated with poor prognosis due to the limited efficacy of current therapies. Nanomedicine has emerged as a versatile technology to treat various diseases, including cancers, and has played an indispensable role in combatting the COVID-19 pandemic as evidenced by the role that lipid nanocarrier-based vaccines have played. The tunability of nanocarrier physicochemical properties -including size, shape, surface chemistry, and drug release kinetics- has resulted in the development of a wide range of nanocarriers for brain cancer treatment. These nanocarriers can improve the pharmacokinetics of drugs, increase blood-brain barrier transfer efficiency, and specifically target brain cancer cells. These unique features would potentially allow for more efficient treatment of brain cancer with fewer side effects and better therapeutic outcomes. This review provides an overview of brain cancers, current therapeutic options, and challenges to efficient brain cancer treatment. The latest advances in nanomedicine strategies are investigated with an emphasis on targeted and stimulus-responsive nanocarriers and their potential for clinical translation.

Amphiphilic, lauric acid-coupled pluronic-based nano-micellar system for efficient glipizide delivery

Glipizide; an insulin secretagogue belonging to the sulfonylurea class, is a widely used antidiabetic drug for managing type 2 diabetes. However, the need for life-long administration and repeated doses poses challenges in maintaining optimal blood glucose levels. In this regard, orally active sustained-release nano-formulations can be a better alternative to traditional antidiabetic formulations. The present study explored an innovative approach by formulating orally active sustained-release nano-micelles using the amphiphilic lauric acid-conjugated-F127 (LAF127) block copolymer. LAF127 block copolymer was synthesized through esterification and thoroughly characterized before being employed to develop glipizide-loaded nano-micelles (GNM) via the thin-film hydration technique. The optimized formulation exhibited mean particle size of 341.40 ± 3.21 nm and depicted homogeneous particle size distribution with a polydispersity index (PDI) < 0.2. The formulation revealed a surface charge of -17.11 ± 6.23 mV. The in vitro release studies of glipizide from developed formulation depicted a sustained release profile. Drug loaded micelles exhibited a substantial reduction in blood glucose levels in diabetic rats for a duration of up to 24 h. Notably, neither the blank nano-micelles of LAF127 nor the drug loaded micelles manifested any indications of toxicity in healthy rats. This study provides an insight on suitability of synthesized LAF127 block copolymer for development of effective oral drug delivery systems for anti-diabetic activity without any significant adverse effects.

Polyethylene Glycol-Based Polymer-Drug Conjugates: Novel Design and Synthesis Strategies for Enhanced Therapeutic Efficacy and Targeted Drug Delivery

Due to their potential to enhance therapeutic results and enable targeted drug administration, polymer-drug conjugates that use polyethylene glycol (PEG) as both the polymer and the linker for drug conjugation have attracted much research. This study seeks to investigate recent developments in the design and synthesis of PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, emphasizing fresh ideas that fill in existing knowledge gaps and satisfy the increasing need for more potent drug delivery methods. Through an extensive review of the existing literature, this study identifies key challenges and proposes innovative strategies for future investigations. The paper presents a comprehensive framework for designing and synthesizing PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, including rational molecular design, linker selection, conjugation methods, and characterization techniques. To further emphasize the importance and adaptability of PEG-based polymer-drug conjugates, prospective applications are highlighted, including cancer treatment, infectious disorders, and chronic ailments.

Co-assembly of Amphiphilic Triblock Copolymers with Nanodrugs and Drug Release Kinetics in Solution

Polymeric vesicles present great potential in disease treatment as they can be featured as a structurally stable and easily functionalized drug carrier that can simultaneously encapsulate multiple drugs and release them on-demand. Based on the dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) simulation, the drug-loaded vesicles were designed by the co-assembly process of linear amphiphilic triblock copolymers and hydrophobic nanodrugs in solvents, and most importantly, the drug release behavior of drug-loaded vesicles were intensively investigated. The drug-loaded aggregates, such as vesicles, spherical micelles, and disk-like micelles, were observed by varying the size and concentration of nanodrugs and the length of the hydrophobic block. The distribution of nanodrugs in the vesicles was intensively analyzed. As the size of the nanodrugs increases, the localization of nanodrugs change from being unable to fully wrap in the vesicle wall to the uniform distribution and finally to the aggregation in the vesicles at the fixed concentration of nanodrugs. The membrane thickness of the drug-loaded polymeric vesicle can be increased, and the nanodrugs localized closer to the center of the vesicle by increasing the length of the hydrophobic block. The nanodrugs will be released from vesicles by varying the interactions between the nanodrug and the solvent or the hydrophobic block and the solvent, respectively. We found that the release kinetics conforms to the first-order kinetic model, which can be used to fit the cumulative release rate of nanodrugs over time. The results showed that increasing the size of nanodrugs, the length of hydrophobic block, and the interaction parameters between the hydrophobic block and the solvent will slow down the release rate of the nanodrug and change the drug release process from monophasic to biphasic release model.

Tumor-specific cytolysis by peptide-conjugated echogenic polymer micelles

Interest in multifunctional polymer nanoparticles for targeted delivery of anti-cancer drugs has grown significantly in recent years. In this study, tumor-targeting echogenic polymer micelles were prepared from poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether-alkyl carbonate (mPEG-AC) derivatives, and their potential in cancer therapy was assessed. Various mPEG derivatives with carbonate linkages were synthesized via an alkyl halide reaction between mPEG and alkyl chloroformate. Micelle formation using polymer amphiphiles in aqueous media and the subsequent carbon dioxide (CO2) gas generation from the micelles was confirmed. Their ability to target neuroblastoma was substantially enhanced by incorporating the rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG) peptide. RVG-modified gas-generating micelles significantly inhibited tumor growth in a tumor-bearing mouse model owing to CO2 gas generation within tumor cells and resultant cytolytic effects, showing minimal side effects. The development of multifunctional polymer micelles may offer a promising therapeutic approach for various diseases, including cancer.

Stimuli responsiveness of recent biomacromolecular systems (concept to market): A review

Stimuli responsive delivery systems, also known as smart/intelligent drug delivery systems, are specialized delivery vehicles designed to provide spatiotemporal control over drug release at target sites in various diseased conditions, including tumor, inflammation and many others. Recent advances in the design and development of a wide variety of stimuli-responsive (pH, redox, enzyme, temperature) materials have resulted in their widespread use in drug delivery and tissue engineering. The aim of this review is to provide an insight of recent nanoparticulate drug delivery systems including polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, lipid-based nanoparticles and the design of new polymer-drug conjugates (PDCs), with a major emphasis on natural along with synthetic commercial polymers used in their construction. Special focus has been placed on stimuli-responsive polymeric materials, their preparation methods, and the design of novel single and multiple stimuli-responsive materials that can provide controlled drug release in response a specific stimulus. These stimuli-sensitive drug nanoparticulate systems have exhibited varying degrees of substitution with enhanced in vitro/in vivo release. However, in an attempt to further increase drug release, new dual and multi-stimuli based natural polymeric nanocarriers have been investigated which respond to a mixture of two or more signals and are awaiting clinical trials. The translation of biopolymeric directed stimuli-sensitive drug delivery systems in clinic demands a thorough knowledge of its mechanism and drug release pattern in order to produce affordable and patient friendly products.

Enhancing oral delivery and anticancer efficacy of 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin through self-assembled micelles of deoxycholic acid grafted N'-nonyl-trimethyl chitosan

Irinotecan (CPT-11) is used as a first or second-line chemotherapy drug for the treatment and management of colorectal cancers. In vitro studies have shown that 7-ethyl-10-hydroxycamptothecin (SN38), the active metabolite of CPT-11, displays promising anticancer efficacy. However, its poor aqueous solubility and hydrolytic degradation result in its lower oral bioavailability and impracticable clinical application. To overcome these limitations, a novel amphiphilic chitosan derivative, deoxycholic acid decorated N'-nonyl-trimethyl chitosan, was synthesized. Nano-micelles loaded with SN38 were subsequently prepared to enhance the bioavailability and anti-tumor efficacy of the drug through oral administration. The nano-micelles demonstrated improved dilution stability, enhanced greater mucosal adherence, significant P-gp efflux inhibition, and increased drug transport in the intestine by paracellular and transcellular pathways. Consequently, both the in vivo pharmacokinetic profile and therapeutic efficacy of SN38 against cancer were substantially improved via the micellar system. Thus, the developed polymeric micelles can potentially enhance the SN38 oral absorption for cancer therapy, offering prospective avenues for further exploration.

Recent progress in drug delivery systems for tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of lung cancer

Lung cancer ranks as the second most commonly diagnosed cancer in both men and women worldwide. Despite the availability of diverse diagnostic and treatment strategies, it remains the leading cause of cancer-related deaths globally. The current treatment approaches for lung cancer involve the utilization of first generation (e.g., erlotinib, gefitinib) and second generation (e.g., afatinib) tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). These TKIs exert their effects by inhibiting a crucial enzyme called tyrosine kinase, which is responsible for cell survival signaling. However, their clinical effectiveness is hindered by limited solubility and oral bioavailability. Nanotechnology has emerged as a significant application in modern cancer therapy. Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems, including lipid, polymeric, hybrid, inorganic, dendrimer, and micellar nanoparticles, have been designed to enhance the bioavailability, stability, and retention of these drugs within the targeted lung area. Furthermore, these nanoparticle-based delivery systems offer several advantages, such as increased therapeutic efficacy and reduced side effects and toxicity. This review focuses on the recent advancements in drug delivery systems for some of the most important TKIs, shedding light on their potential in improving lung cancer treatment.

Oral Insulin Delivery: A Review on Recent Advancements and Novel Strategies

BACKGROUND

Due to the lifestyle of people in the community in recent years, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus has increased, so New drugs and related treatments are also being developed.

INTRODUCTION

One of the essential treatments for diabetes today is injectable insulin forms, which have their problems and limitations, such as invasive and less admission of patients and high cost of production. According to the mentioned issues, Theoretically, Oral insulin forms can solve many problems of injectable forms.

METHODS

Many efforts have been made to design and introduce Oral delivery systems of insulin, such as lipid-based, synthetic polymer-based, and polysaccharide-based nano/microparticle formulations. The present study reviewed these novel formulations and strategies in the past five years and checked their properties and results.

RESULTS

According to peer-reviewed research, insulin-transporting particles may preserve insulin in the acidic and enzymatic medium and decrease peptide degradation; in fact, they could deliver appropriate insulin levels to the intestinal environment and then to blood. Some of the studied systems increase the permeability of insulin to the absorption membrane in cellular models. In most investigations, in vivo results revealed a lower ability of formulations to reduce BGL than subcutaneous form, despite promising results in in vitro and stability testing.

CONCLUSION

Although taking insulin orally currently seems unfeasible, future systems may be able to overcome mentioned obstacles, making oral insulin delivery feasible and producing acceptable bioavailability and treatment effects in comparison to injection forms.

Construction of intelligent drug delivery system based on polysaccharide-derived polymer micelles: A review

Micelles are nanostructures developed via the spontaneous assembly of amphiphilic polymers in aqueous systems, which possess the advantages of high drug stability or active-ingredient solubilization, targeted transport, controlled release, high bioactivity, and stability. Polysaccharides have excellent water solubility, biocompatibility, and degradability, and can be modified to achieve a hydrophobic core to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs, improve drug biocompatibility, and achieve regulated delivery of the loaded drug. Micelles drug delivery systems based on polysaccharides and their derivatives show great potential in the biomedical field. This review discusses the principles of self-assembly of amphiphilic polymers and the formation of micelles; the preparation of amphiphilic polysaccharides is described in detail, and an overview of common polysaccharides and their modifications is provided. We focus on the review of strategies for encapsulating drugs in polysaccharide-derived polymer micelles (PDPMs) and building intelligent drug delivery systems. This review provides new research directions that will help promote future research and development of PDPMs in the field of drug carriers.

Polymeric Micelle-Based Nanogels as Emerging Drug Delivery Systems in Breast Cancer Treatment: Promises and Challenges

Breast cancer is a pervasive global health issue that disproportionately impacts the female population. Over the past few years, there has been considerable interest in nanotechnology due to its potential utility in creating drug-delivery systems designed to combat this illness. The primary aim of these devices is to enhance the delivery of targeted medications, optimise the specific cells that receive the drugs, tackle treatment resistance in malignant cells, and introduce novel strategies for preventing and controlling diseases. This research aims to examine the methodologies utilised by various carrier nanoparticles in the context of therapeutic interventions for breast cancer. The main objective is to investigate the potential application of novel delivery technologies to attain timely and efficient diagnosis and treatment. Current cancer research predominantly examines diverse drug delivery methodologies for chemotherapeutic agents. These methodologies encompass the development of hydrogels, micelles, exosomes, and similar compounds. This research aims to analyse the attributes, intricacies, notable advancements, and practical applications of the system in clinical settings. Despite the demonstrated efficacy of these methodologies, an apparent discrepancy can be observed between the progress made in developing innovative therapeutic approaches and their widespread implementation in clinical settings. It is critical to establish a robust correlation between these two variables to enhance the effectiveness of medication delivery systems based on nanotechnology in the context of breast cancer treatment.

New insight into the mechanisms of Ginkgo biloba leaves in the treatment of cancer

BACKGROUND

Ginkgo biloba leaves (GBLs), as an herbal dietary supplement and a traditional Chinese medicine, have been used in treating diseases for hundred years. Recently, increasing evidence reveals that the extracts and active ingredients of GBLs have anti-cancer (chemo-preventive) properties. However, the molecular mechanism of GBLs in anti-cancer has not been comprehensively summarized.

PURPOSE

To systematically summarize the literatures for identifying the molecular mechanism of GBLs in cellular, animal models and clinical trials of cancers, as well as for critically evaluating the current evidence of efficacy and safety of GBLs for cancers.

METHODS

Employing the search terms "Ginkgo biloba" and "cancer" till July 25, 2023, a comprehensive search was carried out in four electronic databases including Scopus, PubMed, Google Scholar and Web of Science. The articles not contained in the databases are performed by manual searches and all the literatures on anti-cancer research and mechanism of action of GBLs was extracted and summarized. The quality of methodology was assessed independently through PRISMA 2020.

RESULTS

Among 84 records found in the database, 28 were systematic reviews related to GBLs, while the remaining 56 records were related to the anticancer effects of GBLs, which include studies on the anticancer activities and mechanisms of extracts or its components in GBLs at cellular, animal, and clinical levels. During these studies, the top six cancer types associated with GBLs are lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, gastric cancer, breast cancer, colorectal cancer, and cervical cancer. Further analysis reveals that GBLs primarily exert their anticancer effects by stimulating cancer cell apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation, invasion and migration of cancers, exhibiting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and modulating signaling pathways. Besides, the pharmacology, toxicology, and clinical research on the anti-tumor activity of GBLs have also been discussed.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first paper to thoroughly investigate the pharmacology effect, toxicology, and the mechanisms of action of GBLs for anti-cancer properties. All the findings will reinforce the need to explore the new usage of GBLs in cancers and offer comprehensive reference data and recommendations for future research on this herbal medicine.

Peptide-Conjugated Micelles Make Effective Mimics of the TRAIL Protein for Driving Apoptosis in Colon Cancer

Tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) drives apoptosis selectively in cancer cells by clustering death receptors (DR4 and DR5). While it has excellent in vitro selectivity and toxicity, the TRAIL protein has a very low circulation half-life in vivo, which has hampered clinical development. Here, we developed core-cross-linked micelles that present multiple copies of a TRAIL-mimicking peptide at its surface. These micelles successfully induce apoptosis in a colon cancer cell line (COLO205) via DR4/5 clustering. Micelles with a peptide density of 15% (roughly 1 peptide/45 nm2) displayed the strongest activity with an IC50 value of 0.8 μM (relative to peptide), demonstrating that the precise spatial arrangement of ligands imparted by a protein such as a TRAIL may not be necessary for DR4/5/signaling and that a statistical network of monomeric ligands may suffice. As micelles have long circulation half-lives, we propose that this could provide a potential alternative drug to TRAIL and stimulate the use of micelles in other membrane receptor clustering networks.

Simultaneous Determination of Posaconazole and Hemp Seed Oil in Nanomicelles through RP-HPLC via a Quality-by-Design Approach

The present study involves the development of a reverse-phase HPLC method employing the quality-by-design methodology for the estimation of posaconazole and hemp seed oil simultaneously in nanomicelles formulation. The successful separation of posaconazole and hemp seed oil was achieved together, and this is the first study to develop and quantify posaconazole and hemp seed oil nanomicelles with linoleic acid as the internal standard and developed a dual drug analytical method employing a quality-by-design approach. The study was performed on a Shimadzu Prominence-I LC-2030C 3D Plus HPLC system with a PDA detector and the Shim-pack Solar C8 column (250 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) for analysis with a mobile phase ratio of methanol:water (80:20% v/v) maintaining the flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The final wavelength was selected as 240 nm and the elution of hemp seed oil and posaconazole was obtained at 2.7 and 4.6 min, respectively, with a maximum run time of 8.0 min. Box Behnken design was employed to optimize the method, keeping the retention time, peak area, and theoretical plates as dependent variables, while the mobile phase composition, flow rate, and wavelengths were chosen as independent variables. Parameters such as specificity, accuracy, robustness, linearity, sensitivity, precision, ruggedness, and forced degradation study were performed to validate the method. The calibration curves of posaconazole and hemp seed oil were determined to be linear throughout the range for concentration. The suggested approach can be effectively utilized for estimating the content of drugs from their nanoformulation and proved suitable for both in vivo and in vitro research.

Delivery of Immunostimulatory Cargos in Nanocarriers Enhances Anti-Tumoral Nanovaccine Efficacy

Finding a long-term cure for tumor patients still represents a major challenge. Immunotherapies offer promising therapy options, since they are designed to specifically prime the immune system against the tumor and modulate the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Using nucleic-acid-based vaccines or cellular vaccines often does not achieve sufficient activation of the immune system in clinical trials. Additionally, the rapid degradation of drugs and their non-specific uptake into tissues and cells as well as their severe side effects pose a challenge. The encapsulation of immunomodulatory molecules into nanocarriers provides the opportunity of protected cargo transport and targeted uptake by antigen-presenting cells. In addition, different immunomodulatory cargos can be co-delivered, which enables versatile stimulation of the immune system, enhances anti-tumor immune responses and improves the toxicity profile of conventional chemotherapeutic agents.

Liposome-Micelle-Hybrid (LMH) Carriers for Controlled Co-Delivery of 5-FU and Paclitaxel as Chemotherapeutics

Paclitaxel (PTX) and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) are clinically relevant chemotherapeutics, but both suffer a range of biopharmaceutical challenges (e.g., either low solubility or permeability and limited controlled release from nanocarriers), which reduces their effectiveness in new medicines. Anticancer drugs have several major limitations, which include non-specificity, wide biological distribution, a short half-life, and systemic toxicity. Here, we investigate the potential of liposome-micelle-hybrid (LMH) carriers (i.e., drug-loaded micelles encapsulated within drug-loaded liposomes) to enhance the co-formulation and delivery of PTX and 5-FU, facilitating new delivery opportunities with enhanced chemotherapeutic performance. We focus on the combination of liposomes and micelles for co-delivery of PTX and 5_FU to investigate increased drug loading, improved solubility, and transport/permeability to enhance chemotherapeutic potential. Furthermore, combination chemotherapy (i.e., containing two or more drugs in a single formulation) may offer improved pharmacological performance. Compared with individual liposome and micelle formulations, the optimized PTX-5FU-LMH carriers demonstrated increased drug loading and solubility, temperature-sensitive release, enhanced permeability in a Caco-2 cell monolayer model, and cancer cell eradication. LMH has significant potential for cancer drug delivery and as a next-generation chemotherapeutic.

Increased delivery and cytotoxicity of doxorubicin in HeLa cells using the synthetic cationic peptide pEM-2 functionalized liposomes

HYPOTHESIS

Due to the inability of nano-carriers to passively cross the cell membrane, cell penetration enhancers are used to accelerate cytoplasmic delivery of antineoplastic drugs. In this regard, snake venom phospholipase A2 peptides are known for their ability to destabilize natural and artificial membranes. In this context, functionalized liposomes with peptide pEM-2 should favor the incorporation of doxorubicin and increase its cytotoxicity in HeLa cells compared to free doxorubicin, and doxorubicin encapsulated in non-functionalized liposomes.

EXPERIMENTS

Several characteristics were monitored, including doxorubicin loading capacity of the liposomes, as well as the release and uptake before and after functionalization. Cell viability and half-maximal inhibition concentrations were determined in HeLa cells.

FINDINGS

In vitro studies showed that functionalization of doxorubicin-loaded PC-NG liposomes with pEM-2 not only improved the amount of doxorubicin delivered compared to free doxorubicin or other doxorubicin-containing formulations, but also showed enhanced cytotoxicity against HeLa cells. The PC-NG liposomes loaded with doxorubicin improved treatment efficacy by reducing the IC₅₀ value and incubation time. This increase in cell toxicity was directly related to the concentration of pEM-2 peptide bound to the liposomes. We conclude that the cytotoxicity observed in HeLa cells due to the action of doxorubicin was strongly favored when encapsulated in synthetic liposomes and functionalized with the pEM-2 peptide.

Pluronic F127 and P104 Polymeric Micelles as Efficient Nanocarriers for Loading and Release of Single and Dual Antineoplastic Drugs

The potential application of biodegradable and biocompatible polymeric micelles formed by Pluronic F127 and P104 as nanocarriers of the antineoplastic drugs docetaxel (DOCE) and doxorubicin (DOXO) is presented in this work. The release profile was carried out under sink conditions at 37 °C and analyzed using the Higuchi, Korsmeyer-Peppas, and Peppas-Sahlin diffusion models. The cell viability of HeLa cells was evaluated using the proliferation cell counting kit CCK-8 assay. The formed polymeric micelles solubilized significant amounts of DOCE and DOXO, and released them in a sustained manner for 48 h, with a release profile composed of an initial rapid release within the first 12 h followed by a much slower phase the end of the experiments. In addition, the release was faster under acidic conditions. The model that best fit the experimental data was the Korsmeyer-Peppas one and denoted a drug release dominated by Fickian diffusion. When HeLa cells were exposed for 48 h to DOXO and DOCE drugs loaded inside P104 and F127 micelles, they showed lower IC₅₀ values than those reported by other researchers using polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers or liposomes as alternative carriers, indicating that a lower drug concentration is needed to decrease cell viability by 50%.

Influence of Lyophilization and Cryoprotection on the Stability and Morphology of Drug-Loaded Poly(ethylene glycol-b-ε-caprolactone) Micelles

Polymeric micelles are promising carriers for the delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs, providing enhanced drug solubility, blood circulation times, and bioavailability. Nevertheless, the storage and long-term stability of micelles in solution present challenges requiring the lyophilization and storage of formulations in the solid state, with reconstitution immediately prior to application. Therefore, it is important to understand the effects of lyophilization/reconstitution on micelles, particularly their drug-loaded counterparts. Herein, we investigated the use of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) as a cryoprotectant for the lyophilization/reconstitution of a library of poly(ethylene glycol-b-ε-caprolactone) (PEG-b-PCL) copolymer micelles and their drug-loaded counterparts, as well as the effect of the physiochemical properties of different drugs (phloretin and gossypol). The critical aggregation concentration (CAC) of the copolymers decreased with increasing weight fraction of the PCL block (f_PCL), plateauing at ~1 mg/L when the f_PCL was >0.45. The blank (empty) and drug-loaded micelles were lyophilized/reconstituted in the absence and presence of β-CD (9% w/w) and analyzed via dynamic light scattering (DLS) and synchrotron small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to assess for changes in aggregate size (hydrodynamic diameter, D_h) and morphology, respectively. Regardless of the PEG-b-PCL copolymer or the use of β-CD, the blank micelles displayed poor redispersibility (<10% relative to the initial concentration), while the fraction that redispersed displayed similar D_h to the as-prepared micelles, increasing in D_h as the f_PCL of the PEG-b-PCL copolymer increased. While most blank micelles displayed discrete morphologies, the addition of β-CD or lyophilization/reconstitution generally resulted in the formation of poorly defined aggregates. Similar results were also obtained for drug-loaded micelles, with the exception of several that retained their primary morphology following lyophilization/reconstitution, although no obvious trends were noted between the microstructure of the copolymers or the physicochemical properties of the drugs and their successful redispersion.

Scientometric Research on Trend Analysis of Nano-Based Sustained Drug Release Systems for Wound Healing

Nanomaterials, such as the nanoparticle (NP), nanomicelle, nanoscaffold, and nano-hydrogel, have been researched as nanocarriers for drug delivery more and more recently. Nano-based drug sustained release systems (NDSRSs) have been used in many medical fields, especially wound healing. However, as we know, no scientometric analysis has been seen on applying NDSRSs in wound healing, which could be of great importance to the relevant researchers. This study collected publications from 1999 to 2022 related to NDSRSs in wound healing from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database. We employed scientometric methods to comprehensively analyze the dataset from different perspectives using CiteSpace, VOSviewer, and Bibliometrix. The results indicated that China published the most significant number of documents in the last two decades, Islamic Azad Univ was the most productive institution, and Jayakumar, R was the most influential author. Regarding the analysis of keywords, trend topics indicate that "antibacterial", "chitosan (CS)", "scaffold", "hydrogel", "silver nanoparticle", and "growth factors (GFs)" are the hot topics in recent years. We anticipate that our work will provide a comprehensive overview of research in this field and help scholars better understand the research hotspots and frontiers in this area, thus inspiring further explorations in the future.

Unimolecular Micelles from Randomly Grafted Arborescent Copolymers with Different Core Branching Densities: Encapsulation of Doxorubicin and In Vitro Release Study

A series of amphiphilic arborescent copolymers of generations G1 and G2 with an arborescent poly(γ-benzyl L-glutamate) (PBG) core and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) chain segments in the shell, PBG-g-PEO, were synthesized and evaluated as drug delivery nanocarriers. The PBG building blocks were generated by ring-opening polymerization of γ-benzyl L-glutamic acid N-carboxyanhydride (Glu-NCA) initiated with n-hexylamine. Partial or full deprotection of the benzyl ester groups followed by coupling with PBG chains yielded a comb-branched (arborescent polymer generation zero or G0) PBG structure. Additional cycles of deprotection and grafting provided G1 and G2 arborescent polypeptides. Side chains of poly(ethylene oxide) were then randomly grafted onto the arborescent PBG substrates to produce amphiphilic arborescent copolymers. Control over the branching density of G0PBG was investigated by varying the length and the deprotection level of the linear PBG substrates used in their synthesis. Three G0PBG cores with different branching densities, varying from a compact and dense to a loose and more porous structure, were thus synthesized. These amphiphilic copolymers behaved similar to unimolecular micelles in aqueous solutions, with a unimodal number- and volume-weighted size distributions in dynamic light scattering measurements. It was demonstrated that these biocompatible copolymers can encapsulate hydrophobic drugs such as doxorubicin (DOX) within their hydrophobic core with drug loading efficiencies of 42-65%. Sustained and pH-responsive DOX release was observed from the unimolecular micelles, which suggests that they could be useful as drug nanocarriers for cancer therapy.

Exploring the Application of Micellar Drug Delivery Systems in Cancer Nanomedicine

Various formulations of polymeric micelles, tiny spherical structures made of polymeric materials, are currently being investigated in preclinical and clinical settings for their potential as nanomedicines. They target specific tissues and prolong circulation in the body, making them promising cancer treatment options. This review focuses on the different types of polymeric materials available to synthesize micelles, as well as the different ways that micelles can be tailored to be responsive to different stimuli. The selection of stimuli-sensitive polymers used in micelle preparation is based on the specific conditions found in the tumor microenvironment. Additionally, clinical trends in using micelles to treat cancer are presented, including what happens to micelles after they are administered. Finally, various cancer drug delivery applications involving micelles are discussed along with their regulatory aspects and future outlooks. As part of this discussion, we will examine current research and development in this field. The challenges and barriers they may have to overcome before they can be widely adopted in clinics will also be discussed.

Nanotechnological advancements in the brain tumor therapy: a novel approach

Nanotechnological advancements over the past few years have led to the development of newer treatment strategies in brain cancer therapy which leads to the establishment of nano oncology. Nanostructures with high specificity, are best suitable to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Their desired physicochemical properties, such as small sizes, shape, higher surface area to volume ratio, distinctive structural features, and the possibility to attach various substances on their surface transform them into potential transport carriers able to cross various cellular and tissue barriers, including the BBB. The review emphasizes nanotechnology-based treatment strategies for the exploration of brain tumors and highlights the current progress of different nanomaterials for the effective delivery of drugs for brain tumor therapy.

Recent Advances in the Development of Nanodelivery Systems Targeting the TRAIL Death Receptor Pathway

The TRAIL (TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand) apoptotic pathway is extensively exploited in the development of targeted antitumor therapy due to TRAIL specificity towards its cognate receptors, namely death receptors DR4 and DR5. Although therapies targeting the TRAIL pathway have encountered many obstacles in attempts at clinical implementation for cancer treatment, the unique features of the TRAIL signaling pathway continue to attract the attention of researchers. Special attention is paid to the design of novel nanoscaled delivery systems, primarily aimed at increasing the valency of the ligand for improved death receptor clustering that enhances apoptotic signaling. Optionally, complex nanoformulations can allow the encapsulation of several therapeutic molecules for a combined synergistic effect, for example, chemotherapeutic agents or photosensitizers. Scaffolds for the developed nanodelivery systems are fabricated by a wide range of conventional clinically approved materials and innovative ones, including metals, carbon, lipids, polymers, nanogels, protein nanocages, virus-based nanoparticles, dendrimers, DNA origami nanostructures, and their complex combinations. Most nanotherapeutics targeting the TRAIL pathway are aimed at tumor therapy and theranostics. However, given the wide spectrum of action of TRAIL due to its natural role in immune system homeostasis, other therapeutic areas are also involved, such as liver fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer's disease, and inflammatory diseases caused by bacterial infections. This review summarizes the recent innovative developments in the design of nanodelivery systems modified with TRAIL pathway-targeting ligands.

Structures and Applications of Nucleic Acid-Based Micelles for Cancer Therapy

Nucleic acids have become important building blocks in nanotechnology over the last 30 years. DNA and RNA can sequentially build specific nanostructures, resulting in versatile drug delivery systems. Self-assembling amphiphilic nucleic acids, composed of hydrophilic and hydrophobic segments to form micelle structures, have the potential for cancer therapeutics due to their ability to encapsulate hydrophobic agents into their core and position functional groups on the surface. Moreover, DNA or RNA within bio-compatible micelles can function as drugs by themselves. This review introduces and discusses nucleic acid-based spherical micelles from diverse amphiphilic nucleic acids and their applications in cancer therapy.

Applications of Nanoparticles in Alzheimer's Disease

With the rapid aging of the global population, the prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases has become a significant concern, with Alzheimer's disease (AD) being the most common. However, the clinical trials of many drugs targeting AD have failed due to the challenges posed by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which makes intracerebral administration of drugs difficult. However, nanoparticles (NPs) may aid in the delivery of such drugs. NPs are materials with sizes between 1-100 nm that offer several advantages, such as improving biocompatibility, prolonging half-life, transporting large molecules, crossing the BBB to deliver to the central nervous system, and exhibiting good targeting ability. In addition to drug delivery, NPs also have excellent diagnostic potential, and multifunctional NPs can integrate the advantages of diagnosis, targeting, and treatment. This mini-review article provides an overview of NPs, including the composition of the carrier, strategies for crossing the BBB, and different targets of AD pathology, with the aim of providing guidance for the development prospects of NPs.

Encapsulins: Structure, Properties, and Biotechnological Applications

In 1994 a new class of prokaryotic compartments was discovered, collectively called "encapsulins" or "nanocompartments". Encapsulin shell protomer proteins self-assemble to form icosahedral structures of various diameters (24-42 nm). Inside of nanocompartments shells, one or several cargo proteins, diverse in their functions, can be encapsulated. In addition, non-native cargo proteins can be loaded into nanocompartments, and shell surfaces can be modified via various compounds, which makes it possible to create targeted drug delivery systems, labels for optical and MRI imaging, and to use encapsulins as bioreactors. This review describes a number of strategies of encapsulins application in various fields of science, including biomedicine and nanobiotechnologies.

HSA nanoparticles in drug recognition: mechanistic insights with naproxen, diclofenac and methimazole

Protein-based nanoparticles offer a suitable targeted delivery platform to drugs in terms of biocompatibility, biodegradability and abundance in nature. Physicochemical understanding of drug encapsulation by protein nanoparticles and their impact on protein aggregation is essential. In this work, we have examined quantitative aspects of encapsulation of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs naproxen and diclofenac sodium, and anti-thyroid drug methimazole in nanoparticles of human serum albumin (HSA NPs) by using ultrasensitive calorimetry. Thermodynamic signatures accompanying the interactions revealed that the partitioning of all these drugs in HSA NPs is primarily driven via contributions from desolvation of highly hydrated nanoparticles surface. Furthermore, the effect of these nanoparticles on fibrillation of HSA has also been studied. HSA NPs are determined to be ineffective towards inhibition of fibrillation under employed conditions. However, the extent of inhibition by HSA NPs varies depending upon the structural characteristics of the drugs. Such studies help to gain mechanistic aspects on drug loading into protein-based nanoparticles and are expected to provide useful insights into improving existing nano-drug carriers and their efficiency in preventing protein fibrillation.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Reaction mechanism of nanomedicine based on porphyrin skeleton and its application prospects

Research on porphyrin-based photosensitizing drugs is becoming increasingly popular. They possess unique diagnostic capabilities and therapeutic effects that have gained wide recognition in oncology drug development. In recent years, the rapid growth of nanotechnology has brought great hope for nanopharmaceutical formulations. By combining porphyrins with various nanomaterials, people have improved the properties of porphyrin compounds, making drug delivery easier. Porphyrin-based nanoparticles can enhance the effect of photodynamic therapy for cancer treatment, providing opportunities for achieving complex targeting strategies and versatility with promising applications in drug carriers, tumor imaging, and treatment. This paper reviews recent porphyrin nanodrugs, including inorganic-organic hybrid nanoparticles, nanomicelles, self-assembled nanoparticles, and combination therapeutic nanodrugs, and their actions and effects on cancer cells when performing photodynamic therapy. It also discusses the drawbacks as well as the prospects for development.

Chemical Approaches to Synthetic Drug Delivery Systems for Systemic Applications

Poor water solubility and low bioavailability of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are major causes of friction in the pharmaceutical industry and represent a formidable hurdle for pharmaceutical drug development. Drug delivery remains the major challenge for the application of new small-molecule drugs as well as biopharmaceuticals. The three challenges for synthetic delivery systems are: (i) controlling drug distribution and clearance in the blood; (ii) solubilizing poorly water-soluble agents, and (iii) selectively targeting specific tissues. Although several polymer-based systems have addressed the first two demands and have been translated into clinical practice, no targeted synthetic drug delivery system has reached the market. This Review is designed to provide a background on the challenges and requirements for the design and translation of new polymer-based delivery systems. This report will focus on chemical approaches to drug delivery for systemic applications.

Progress of Nanomaterials-Based Photothermal Therapy for Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is one of the top 15 most prevalent cancers worldwide. However, the current treatment models for OSCC (e.g., surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and combination therapy) present several limitations: damage to adjacent healthy tissue, possible recurrence, low efficiency, and severe side effects. In this context, nanomaterial-based photothermal therapy (PTT) has attracted extensive research attention. This paper reviews the latest progress in the application of biological nanomaterials for PTT in OSCC. We divide photothermal nanomaterials into four categories (noble metal nanomaterials, carbon-based nanomaterials, metal compounds, and organic nanomaterials) and introduce each category in detail. We also mention in detail the drug delivery systems for PTT of OSCC and briefly summarize the applications of hydrogels, liposomes, and micelles. Finally, we note the challenges faced by the clinical application of PTT nanomaterials and the possibility of further improvement, providing direction for the future research of PTT in OSCC treatment.

Recent nanotechnology advancements to treat multidrug-resistance pancreatic cancer: Pre-clinical and clinical overview

Pancreatic cancer (PC) remains one of the most lethal and incurable forms of cancer and has a poor prognosis. One of the significant therapeutic challenges in PC is multidrug resistance (MDR), a phenomenon in which cancer cells develop resistance toward administered therapy. Development of novel therapeutic platforms that could overcome MDR in PC is crucial for improving therapeutic outcomes. Nanotechnology is emerging as a promising tool to enhance drug efficacy and minimize off-target responses via passive and/or active targeting mechanisms. Over the past decade, tremendous efforts have been made to utilize nanocarriers capable of targeting PC cells while minimizing off-target effects. In this review article, we first give an overview of PC and the major molecular mechanisms of MDR, and then we discuss recent advancements in the development of nanocarriers used to overcome PC drug resistance. In doing so, we explore the developmental stages of this research in both pre-clinical and clinical settings. Lastly, we discuss current challenges and gaps in the literature as well as potential future directions in the field.

Drug-loaded PCL electrospun nanofibers as anti-pancreatic cancer drug delivery systems

Cancer is one of the main causes of death worldwide, being pancreatic cancer the second deadliest cancer in Western countries. Surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy form the basis of pancreatic cancer’s current treatment. However, these techniques have several disadvantages, such as surgery complications, chemotherapy systemic side effects and cancer recurrence. Drug delivery systems can reduce side effects, increasing the effectivity of the treatment by a controlled release at the targeted tumor cells. In this context, coaxial electrospun fibers can increase the control on the release profile of the drug. The aim of this study was to encapsulate and release different anticancer drugs (5-Fluorouracil and Methotrexate) from a polymeric fiber mat. Different flows and ratios were used to test their effect on fiber morphology, FTIR spectrum, drug encapsulation and release. Good integration of the anticancer drugs was observed and the use of a desiccator for 24 h showed to be a key step to remove solvent remanence. Moreover, the results of this study demonstrated that the polymeric solution could be used to encapsulate and release different drugs to treat cancers. This makes coaxial electrospinning a promising alternative to deliver complex chemotherapies that involve more than one drug, such as FOLFIRINOX, used in pancreatic cancer treatment.

Self-assembly of globular proteins with intrinsically disordered protein polyelectrolytes and block copolymers

Intrinsically disordered polypeptides are a versatile class of materials, combining the biocompatibility of peptides with the disordered structure and diverse phase behaviors of synthetic polymers. Synthetic polyelectrolytes are capable of complex phase behavior when mixed with oppositely charged polyelectrolytes, facilitating nanoparticle formation and bulk phase separation. However, there has been limited exploration of intrinsically disordered protein polyelectrolytes as potential bio-based replacements for synthetic polyelectrolytes. Here, we produce negatively charged, intrinsically disordered polypeptides, capable of high-yield expression in E. coli and use this intrinsically disordered peptide to produce entirely protein-based polyelectrolyte complexes. The complexes display rich phase behavior, showing sensitivity to charge density, salt concentration, temperature, and charge fraction. We characterize this behavior through a combination of turbidity assays, dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy. The robust expression profile and stimuli-responsive phase behavior of the intrinsically disordered peptides demonstrates their potential as easily producible, biocompatible substitutes for synthetic polyelectrolytes.

Interference of layered double hydroxide nanoparticles with pathways for biomedical applications

Recent decades have witnessed a surge of explorations into the application of multifarious materials, especially biomedical applications. Among them, layered double hydroxides (LDHs) have been widely developed as typical inorganic layer materials to achieve remarkable advancements. Multiple physicochemical properties endow LDHs with excellent merits in biomedical applications. Moreover, LDH nanoplatforms could serve as "molecular switches", which are capable of the controlled release of payloads under specific physiological pH conditions but are stable during circulation in the bloodstream. In addition, LDHs themselves are composed of several specific cations and possess favorable biological effects or regulatory roles in various cellular functions. These advantages have caused LDHs to become increasingly of interest in the area of nanomedicine. Recent efforts have been devoted to revealing the potential factors that interfere with the biological pathways of LDH-based nanoparticles, such as their applications in shaping the functions of immune cells and in determining the fate of stem cells and tumor treatments, which are comprehensively described herein. In addition, several intracellular signaling pathways interfering with by LDHs in the above applications were also systematically expatiated. Finally, the future development and challenges of LDH-based nanomedicine are discussed in the context of the ultimate goal of practical clinical application.

Block Co-PolyMOC Micelles and Structural Synergy as Composite Nanocarriers

Conventional micelles of amphiphilic block copolymers (BCPs) disassemble into individual polymer chains upon dilution to a critical concentration, which causes the premature release of the encapsulated drugs and reduces the drug's bioavailability. Here, by integrating the emerging metal-organic cage (MOC) materials with BCPs, we introduce a new type of composite micellar nanoparticles, block co-polyMOC micelles (or BCPMMs), that are self-assembled in essence yet remarkably stable against dilution. BCPMMs are fabricated via a stepwise assembly strategy that combines MOCs and BCPs in a well-defined, unimolecular core-shell structure. The synergistical interplay between the two components accounts for the particle stability: the MOC core holds BCPs firmly in place and the BCPs increase the MOC's bioavailability. When used as nanocarriers for anticancer drugs, BCPMMs showed an extended blood circulation, a favorable biodistribution, and eventually an improved treatment efficacy in vivo. Given the versatility in designing MOCs and BCPs, we envision that BCPMMs can serve as a modular platform for robust, multifunctional, and tunable nanomedicine.

Polymeric micellar paclitaxel (Pm-Pac) prolonged overall survival for NSCLC patients without pleural metastasis

Nanoparticle polymeric micellar paclitaxel (Pm-Pac) has been demonstrated to have a safety profile and efficacy in advanced non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients. However, whether Pm-Pac could prolong overall survival (OS) for specific advanced NSCLC patients is still unknown. In the present study, a total of 448 patients were randomly assigned (2:1) by the permuted block algorithm to receive Pm-Pac plus cisplatin or solvent-based paclitaxel (Sb-Pac) plus cisplatin (NCT02667743). We performed subgroup analysis based on metastatic status to identify the potential benefit patients. Our results indicated that the metastatic profiles were similar between the Sb-Pac plus cisplatin cohort and the Pm-Pac plus cisplatin cohort. Several subgroups (Metastases = 2, Bone metastasis, No pleural metastasis, etc.) were observed to have increased progression-free survival (PFS) due to Pm-Pac plus cisplatin. Importantly, we found the first evidence that Pm-Pac potentially prolonged OS with a favourable safety profile in NSCLC patients without pleural metastasis. Collectively, this study provides a novel perspective on the development of nanomedicine to investigate chemotherapeutic efficacy and toxicity and provides the first clinical evidence that Pm-Pac administration not only prolongs PFS but also prolongs OS with a favourable safety profile in advanced NSCLC patients without pleural metastasis.

Recent advancements of nanoparticles application in cancer and neurodegenerative disorders: At a glance

Nanoscale engineering is one of the innovative approaches to heal multitudes of ailments, such as varieties of malignancies, neurological problems, and infectious illnesses. Therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) may be modified in aspect because of their ability to stimulate physiological response while limiting negative consequences by interfacing and activating possible targets. Nanomaterials have been extensively studied and employed for cancerous therapeutic strategies since nanomaterials potentially play a significant role in medical transportation. When compared to conventional drug delivery, nanocarriers drug delivery offers various benefits, such as excellent reliability, bioactivity, improved penetration and retention impact, as well as precise targeting and administering. Upregulation of drug efflux transporters, dysfunctional apoptotic mechanisms, and a hypoxic atmosphere are all elements that lead to cancer treatment sensitivity in humans. It has been possible to target these pathways using nanoparticles and increase the effectiveness of multidrug resistance treatments. As innovative strategies of tumor chemoresistance are uncovered, nanomaterials are being developed to target specific pathways of tumor resilience. Scientists have recently begun investigating the function of nanoparticles in immunotherapy, a field that is becoming increasingly useful in the care of malignancies. Nanoscale therapeutics have been explored in this scientific literature and represent the most current approaches to neurodegenerative illnesses and cancer therapy. In addition, current findings and various biomedical nanomaterials' future promise for tissue regeneration, prospective medication design, and the synthesis of novel delivery approaches have been emphasized.

Soluplus® polymeric nanomicelles improve solubility of BCS-class II drugs

The issue of poor aqueous solubility is often a great hitch in the development of liquid dosage forms for those drugs that the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) includes in classes II and IV. Among the possible technological solutions, inclusion of the drug molecule within polymeric micelles, and particularly nanomicelles, has been proposed in the last years as a valid strategy. Our attention has been recently attracted by Soluplus^®, an amphiphilic polyvinyl caprolactam-polyvinyl acetate-polyethylene glycol graft copolymer able to form small and stable nanomicelles. The aim of this study was to characterize Soluplus^® nanomicelles to enhance the apparent solubility of three model APIs, categorized in BCS class II: ibuprofen (IBU), idebenone (IDE), and miconazole (MIC). Drug-loaded Soluplus^® micelles with a mean size around 60–70 nm were prepared by two methods (direct dissolution or film hydration method). The prepared nanosystems were characterized in terms of mean particle size and Zeta potential, physical stability, drug solubility, and in vitro drug release. The solubility of the tested APIs was shown to increase linearly with the concentration of graft copolymer. Soluplus^® can be easily submitted to membrane filtration (0.2 µm PES or PTFE membranes), showing the potential to be sterilized by this method. Freeze-drying enabled to obtain powder materials that, upon reconstitution with water, maintained the initial micelle size. Finally, viscosity studies indicated that these nanomicelles have potential applications where a bioadhesive material is advantageous, such as in topical ocular administration.