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Hartl N, Jürgens DC, Carneiro S, König AC, Xiao X, Liu R, Hauck SM, Merkel OM. Protein corona investigations of polyplexes with varying hydrophobicity - From method development to in vitro studies. Int J Pharm 2023; 643:123257. [PMID: 37482228 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2023.123257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023]
Abstract
In the field of non-viral drug delivery, polyplexes (PXs) represent an advanced investigated and highly promising tool for the delivery of nucleic acids. Upon encountering physiological fluids, they adsorb biological molecules to form a protein corona (PC), that influence PXs biodistribution, transfection efficiencies and targeting abilities. In an effort to understand protein - PX interactions and the effect of PX material on corona composition, we utilized cationic branched 10 kDa polyethyleneimine (b-PEI) and a hydrophobically modified nylon-3 polymer (NM0.2/CP0.8) within this study to develop appropriate methods for PC investigations. A centrifugation procedure for isolating hard corona - PX complexes (PCPXs) from soft corona proteins after incubating the PXs in fetal bovine serum (FBS) for PC formation was successfully optimized and the identification of proteins by a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) method clearly demonstrated that the PC composition is affected by the underlying PXs material. With regard to especially interesting functional proteins, which might be able to induce active targeting effects, several candidates could be detected on b-PEI and NM0.2/CP0.8 PXs. These results are of high interest to better understand how the design of PXs impacts the PC composition and subsequently PCPXs-cell interactions to enable precise adjustment of PXs for targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natascha Hartl
- Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - David C Jürgens
- Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Simone Carneiro
- Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Ann-Christine König
- Metbolomics and Proteomics Core, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Heidemannsstr. 1, 80939 Munich, Germany
| | - Ximian Xiao
- East China University of Science and Technology, 30 Meilong Rd, Shanghai, China
| | - Runhui Liu
- East China University of Science and Technology, 30 Meilong Rd, Shanghai, China
| | - Stefanie M Hauck
- Metbolomics and Proteomics Core, Helmholtz Zentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health GmbH, Heidemannsstr. 1, 80939 Munich, Germany
| | - Olivia M Merkel
- Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Pharmaceutical Technology and Biopharmaceutics, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany.
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2
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Yuan YR, Liu Q, Wang D, Deng YD, Du TT, Yi WJ, Yang ST. GSH-Activatable Aggregation-Induced Emission Cationic Lipid for Efficient Gene Delivery. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28041645. [PMID: 36838634 PMCID: PMC9963561 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28041645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The key to gene therapy is the design of biocompatible and efficient delivery systems. In this work, a glutathione (GSH)-activated aggregation-induced-emission (AIE) cationic amphiphilic lipid, termed QM-SS-KK, was prepared for nonviral gene delivery. QM-SS-KK was composed of a hydrophilic biocompatible lysine tripeptide headgroup, a GSH-triggered disulfide linkage, and a hydrophobic AIE fluorophore QM-OH (QM: quinoline-malononitrile) tail. The peptide moiety could not only efficiently compact DNA but also well modulate the dispersion properties of QM-SS-KK, leading to the fluorescence-off state before GSH treatment. The cleavage of disulfide in QM-SS-KK by GSH generated AIE signals in situ with a tracking ability. The liposomes consisted of QM-SS-KK, and 1,2-dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) (QM-SS-KK/DOPE) delivered plasmid DNAs (pDNAs) into cells with high efficiency. In particular, QM-SS-KK/DOPE had an enhanced transfection efficiency (TE) in the presence of 10% serum, which was two times higher than that of the commercial transfection agent PEI25K. These results highlighted the great potential of peptide and QM-based fluorescence AIE lipids for gene delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue-Rui Yuan
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Deyu Wang
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yu-Dan Deng
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Ting-Ting Du
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Wen-Jing Yi
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Control Chemistry and Environmental Functional Materials for Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, School of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Correspondence: (W.-J.Y.); (S.-T.Y.); Tel.: +86-8552-2315 (W.-J.Y.); +86-85570-9707 (S.-T.Y.)
| | - Sheng-Tao Yang
- Key Laboratory of Pollution Control Chemistry and Environmental Functional Materials for Qinghai-Tibet Plateau of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, School of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu 610041, China
- Correspondence: (W.-J.Y.); (S.-T.Y.); Tel.: +86-8552-2315 (W.-J.Y.); +86-85570-9707 (S.-T.Y.)
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3
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Wang J, Wang D, Du TT, Yi WJ, Liu Q. Reducible amino acid based cationic lipids with a naphthalimide moiety as non-viral gene vehicles. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/17475198221145850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Three basic amino acid–based cationic lipids bearing a fluorescent naphthalimide moiety and a reducible disulfide linkage are synthesized and applied as non-viral gene vehicles. Their DNA interactions are investigated by agarose-gel retardant and ethidium bromide replacement assays. The sizes and zeta potentials of the liposome/DNA complexes are measured by dynamic light scattering. The cytotoxicities of the liposome/DNA complexes are examined using HeLa and 7702 cell lines by MTT assays. The glutathione-responsive DNA release process is studied through time-dependent fluorescence assays. Luciferase gene expression showed the transfection efficiency of the liposome is dramatically increased in the presence of 10% serum. Confocal laser scanning microscopy studies corroborated that the liposome/DNA complexes are successfully uptaken into HeLa cells. These results demonstrate the promising use of amino acids and naphthalimide-containing lipids for safe and efficient gene delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Wang
- Antibiotics Research and Re-evaluation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Industrial Institute of Antibiotics, School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
| | - Deyu Wang
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
| | - Ting-Ting Du
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
| | - Wen-Jing Yi
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
| | - Qiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of General Chemistry of the National Ethnic Affairs Commission, College of Chemistry and Environment, Southwest Minzu University, Chengdu, P.R. China
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Ponti F, Bono N, Russo L, Bigini P, Mantovani D, Candiani G. Vibropolyfection: coupling polymer-mediated gene delivery to mechanical stimulation to enhance transfection of adherent cells. J Nanobiotechnology 2022; 20:363. [PMID: 35933375 PMCID: PMC9356458 DOI: 10.1186/s12951-022-01571-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background With the success of recent non-viral gene delivery-based COVID-19 vaccines, nanovectors have gained some public acceptance and come to the forefront of advanced therapies. Unfortunately, the relatively low ability of the vectors to overcome cellular barriers adversely affects their effectiveness. Scientists have thus been striving to develop ever more effective gene delivery vectors, but the results are still far from satisfactory. Therefore, developing novel strategies is probably the only way forward to bring about genuine change. Herein, we devise a brand-new gene delivery strategy to boost dramatically the transfection efficiency of two gold standard nucleic acid (NA)/polymer nanoparticles (polyplexes) in vitro. Results We conceived a device to generate milli-to-nanoscale vibrational cues as a function of the frequency set, and deliver vertical uniaxial displacements to adherent cells in culture. A short-lived high-frequency vibrational load (t = 5 min, f = 1,000 Hz) caused abrupt and extensive plasmalemma outgrowths but was safe for cells as neither cell proliferation rate nor viability was affected. Cells took about 1 hr to revert to quasi-naïve morphology through plasma membrane remodeling. In turn, this eventually triggered the mechano-activated clathrin-mediated endocytic pathway and made cells more apt to internalize polyplexes, resulting in transfection efficiencies increased from 10-to-100-fold. Noteworthy, these results were obtained transfecting three cell lines and hard-to-transfect primary cells. Conclusions In this work, we focus on a new technology to enhance the intracellular delivery of NAs and improve the transfection efficiency of non-viral vectors through priming adherent cells with a short vibrational stimulation. This study paves the way for capitalizing on physical cell stimulation(s) to significantly raise the effectiveness of gene delivery vectors in vitro and ex vivo. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01571-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federica Ponti
- genT_LΛB, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Laboratory for Biomaterials and Bioengineering, CRC Tier I, Department of Min-Met-Mat Engineering and CHU de Québec Research Center, Division of Regenerative Medicine, Laval University, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Nina Bono
- genT_LΛB, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Luca Russo
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Bigini
- Department of Molecular Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Diego Mantovani
- Laboratory for Biomaterials and Bioengineering, CRC Tier I, Department of Min-Met-Mat Engineering and CHU de Québec Research Center, Division of Regenerative Medicine, Laval University, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Gabriele Candiani
- genT_LΛB, Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "G. Natta", Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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Huang H, Yuan S, Ma Z, Ji P, Ma X, Wu Z, Qi X. Genetic recombination of poly(l-lysine) functionalized apoferritin nanocages that resemble viral capsid nanometer-sized platforms for gene therapy. Biomater Sci 2020; 8:1759-1770. [PMID: 32010909 DOI: 10.1039/c9bm01822k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Currently, bioengineered apoferritin nanocages with flexible protein shells and functionalized modifications have become an attractive approach for efficient anti-tumor therapy. Here, we modified the N-terminus of H-chain subunits in apoferritin with different amounts of lysine via genetic recombination to obtain a poly(l-lysine) modified H-chain apoferritin (nL-HFn) nanocage for siRNA delivery and gene therapy. To achieve excellent cellular affinity and uptake, the nanocarriers were internalized through transferrin receptor-mediated endocytosis, then escaped from the endosome for cytoplasmic transport. Compared with natural apoferritin, the siRNA-loaded genetic recombination NPs modified with lysine exhibit stronger RNA-interference and antitumor efficiency both in vitro and in 4T1 tumor model mice. Therefore, bioengineered apoferritin nanocages modified with lysine might be a promising platform for nucleic acid drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiqin Huang
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Shirui Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhuo Ma
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Peng Ji
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Xiaonan Ma
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Zhenghong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Xiaole Qi
- Key Laboratory of Modern Chinese Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China.
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Jia X, He J, Shen L, Chen J, Wei Z, Qin X, Niu D, Li Y, Shi J. Gradient Redox-Responsive and Two-Stage Rocket-Mimetic Drug Delivery System for Improved Tumor Accumulation and Safe Chemotherapy. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:8690-8700. [PMID: 31698897 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b03340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Recent drug delivery nanosystems for cancer treatment still suffer from the poor tumor accumulation and low therapeutic efficacy due to the complex in vivo biological barriers. To resolve these problems, in this work, a novel gradient redox-responsive and two-stage rocket-mimetic drug nanocarrier is designed and constructed for improved tumor accumulation and safe chemotherapy. The nanocarrier is constructed on the basis of the disulfide-doped organosilica-micellar hybrid nanoparticles and the following dual-functional modification with disulfide-bonded polyethylene glycol (PEG) and amido-bonded polyethylenimine (PEI). First, prolonged circulation duration in the bloodstream is guaranteed due to the shielding of the outer PEG chains. Once the nanocarrier accumulates at the tumoral extracellular microenvironment with low glutathione (GSH) concentrations, the first-stage redox-responsive behavior with the separation of PEG and the exposure of PEI is triggered, leading to the improved tumor accumulation and cellular internalization. Furthermore, with their endocytosis by tumor cells, a high concentration of GSH induces the second-stage redox-responsiveness with the degradation of silsesquioxane framework and the release of the encapsulated drugs. As a result, the rocket-mimetic drug carrier displays longer circulation duration in the bloodstream, higher tumor accumulation capability, and improved antitumor efficacy (which is 2.5 times higher than that with inseparable PEG). It is envisioned that the rocket-mimetic strategy can provide new solutions for improving tumor accumulation and safety of nanocarriers in further cancer chemotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaobo Jia
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Jianping He
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Luying Shen
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Jianzhuang Chen
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Zhenyang Wei
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Xing Qin
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Dechao Niu
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Yongsheng Li
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
| | - Jianlin Shi
- Lab of Low-Dimensional Materials Chemistry, Key Laboratory for Ultrafine Materials of Ministry of Education, Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Hierarchical Nanomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering , East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237 , P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Ceramics and Superfine Microstructure, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics , Chinese Academy of Sciences , Shanghai 200050 , P. R. China
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Rui Y, Wilson DR, Sanders K, Green JJ. Reducible Branched Ester-Amine Quadpolymers (rBEAQs) Codelivering Plasmid DNA and RNA Oligonucleotides Enable CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:10472-10480. [PMID: 30794383 PMCID: PMC7309334 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b20206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Functional codelivery of plasmid DNA and RNA oligonucleotides in the same nanoparticle system is challenging due to differences in their physical properties as well as their intracellular locations of function. In this study, we synthesized a series of reducible branched ester-amine quadpolymers (rBEAQs) and investigated their ability to coencapsulate and deliver DNA plasmids and RNA oligos. The rBEAQs are designed to leverage polymer branching, reducibility, and hydrophobicity to successfully cocomplex DNA and RNA in nanoparticles at low polymer to nucleic acid w/w ratios and enable high delivery efficiency. We validate the synthesis of this new class of biodegradable polymers, characterize the self-assembled nanoparticles that these polymers form with diverse nucleic acids, and demonstrate that the nanoparticles enable safe, effective, and efficient DNA-siRNA codelivery as well as nonviral CRISPR-mediated gene editing utilizing Cas9 DNA and sgRNA codelivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Rui
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for NanoBioTechnology, and the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - David R. Wilson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for NanoBioTechnology, and the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Katie Sanders
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for NanoBioTechnology, and the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
| | - Jordan J. Green
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Institute for NanoBioTechnology, and the Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
- Departments of Ophthalmology, Oncology, Materials Science & Engineering, Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, and Neurosurgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
- Bloomberg~Kimmel Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine
- Corresponding author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
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The polyplex, protein corona, cell interplay: Tips and drawbacks. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2018; 168:60-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2018.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2017] [Revised: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Giupponi E, Visone R, Occhetta P, Colombo F, Rasponi M, Candiani G. Development of a microfluidic platform for high-throughput screening of non-viral gene delivery vectors. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 115:775-784. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.26506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Revised: 10/27/2017] [Accepted: 11/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Giupponi
- Department of Chemistry; Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,”; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Roberta Visone
- Department of Electronics; Information and Bioengineering; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Paola Occhetta
- Department of Electronics; Information and Bioengineering; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
- Department of Biomedicine; University Hospital Basel; University of Basel; Basel Switzerland
| | - Federica Colombo
- Department of Chemistry; Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,”; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Marco Rasponi
- Department of Electronics; Information and Bioengineering; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Gabriele Candiani
- Department of Chemistry; Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,”; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
- “The Protein Factory” Research Centre; Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,”; Politecnico di Milano, and Department of Biotechnology and Life Science - University of Insubria; 20131, Milan Italy
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10
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Maiolo D, Pigliacelli C, Sánchez Moreno P, Violatto MB, Talamini L, Tirotta I, Piccirillo R, Zucchetti M, Morosi L, Frapolli R, Candiani G, Bigini P, Metrangolo P, Baldelli Bombelli F. Bioreducible Hydrophobin-Stabilized Supraparticles for Selective Intracellular Release. ACS NANO 2017; 11:9413-9423. [PMID: 28806871 PMCID: PMC5618140 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b04979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
One of the main hurdles in nanomedicine is the low stability of drug-nanocarrier complexes as well as the drug delivery efficiency in the region-of-interest. Here, we describe the use of the film-forming protein hydrophobin HFBII to organize dodecanethiol-protected gold nanoparticles (NPs) into well-defined supraparticles (SPs). The obtained SPs are exceptionally stable in vivo and efficiently encapsulate hydrophobic drug molecules. The HFBII film prevents massive release of the encapsulated drug, which, instead, is activated by selective SP disassembly triggered intracellularly by glutathione reduction of the protein film. As a consequence, the therapeutic efficiency of an encapsulated anticancer drug is highly enhanced (2 orders of magnitude decrease in IC50). Biodistribution and pharmacokinetics studies demonstrate the high stability of the loaded SPs in the bloodstream and the selective release of the payloads once taken up in the tissues. Overall, our results provide a rationale for the development of bioreducible and multifunctional nanomedicines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Maiolo
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
| | - Claudia Pigliacelli
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Sánchez Moreno
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Laura Talamini
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Ilaria Tirotta
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
| | - Rosanna Piccirillo
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Massimo Zucchetti
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Lavinia Morosi
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Roberta Frapolli
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Gabriele Candiani
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
| | - Paolo Bigini
- IRCCS-Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri" , 20156 Milano, Italy
| | - Pierangelo Metrangolo
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
- VTT-Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd , Biologinkuja 7, FI-02044 Espoo, Finland
| | - Francesca Baldelli Bombelli
- Interdepartmental Laboratory of Nanomedicine (NanoMedLab), Laboratory of Supramolecular and BioNano Materials (SupraBioNanoLab), and Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina (CEN), Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano , via L. Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy
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11
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Disulfide-functional poly(amido amine)s with tunable degradability for gene delivery. J Control Release 2016; 244:357-365. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2016.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2016] [Revised: 08/08/2016] [Accepted: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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12
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Wang J, Xue P, Zhou J, Li L, Xu L, Wang Y. Comparison of two kinds of docetaxel-vitamin E prodrugs: In vitro evaluation and in vivo antitumor activity. Int J Pharm 2016; 505:352-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2016.03.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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13
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Melone L, Tarsini P, Candiani G, Punta C. N-Hydroxyphthalimide catalysts as bioactive pro-oxidants. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra26556h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
N-Hydroxyphthalimide organocatalysts bearing lipophilic moieties exhibit a cytotoxic action by promoting oxidative stress in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Melone
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”. Politecnico di Milano
- 20133 Milano
- Italy
- Università degli Studi e-Campus
- Como
| | - P. Tarsini
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”. Politecnico di Milano
- 20133 Milano
- Italy
| | - G. Candiani
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”. Politecnico di Milano
- 20133 Milano
- Italy
| | - C. Punta
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”. Politecnico di Milano
- 20133 Milano
- Italy
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14
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Pezzoli D, Tallarita E, Rosini E, Candiani G. Characterization and Investigation of Redox-Sensitive Liposomes for Gene Delivery. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1445:217-33. [PMID: 27436322 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3718-9_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A number of smart nonviral gene delivery vectors relying on bioresponsiveness have been introduced in the past few years to overcome the limits of the first generation of gene carriers. Among them, redox-sensitive lipidic and polymeric vectors exploit the presence of disulfide bonds in their structure to take advantage of the highly reductive intracellular milieu and to promote complex unpacking and nucleic acids release after cellular uptake (disulfide linker strategy). Glutathione (GSH) has been often identified as the leading actor in the intracellular reduction of bioreducible vectors but their actual mechanisms of action have been rarely investigated in depth and doubts about the real effectiveness of the disulfide linker strategy have been raised. Herein, we outline a simple protocol for the preparation and investigation of nano-sized reducible cationic liposomes, focusing on their thorough characterization and optimization as gene delivery vectors. In addition, we carefully describe the techniques and procedures necessary for the assessment of the bioreducibility of the vectors and to demonstrate that the GSH-mediated intracellular cleavage of disulfide bonds is a pivotal step in their transfection process. Liposomes composed of 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC), 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE), and of the reducible cationic lipid SS14 are reported as a practical example but the proposed protocol can be easily shifted to other formulations of reducible lipids/liposomes and to reducible polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Pezzoli
- INSTM (Italian National Consortium for Materials Science and Technology), Research Unit Milano Politecnico, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Tallarita
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy
| | - Elena Rosini
- Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, via J.H. Dunant 3, 21100, Varese, Italy
- 'The Protein Factory' Research Centre, Politecnico di Milano and University of Insubria, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriele Candiani
- INSTM (Italian National Consortium for Materials Science and Technology), Research Unit Milano Politecnico, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy.
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta", Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy.
- 'The Protein Factory' Research Centre, Politecnico di Milano and University of Insubria, via Mancinelli 7, 20131, Milan, Italy.
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15
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Maiolo D, Del Pino P, Metrangolo P, Parak WJ, Baldelli Bombelli F. Nanomedicine delivery: does protein corona route to the target or off road? Nanomedicine (Lond) 2015; 10:3231-47. [PMID: 26470748 DOI: 10.2217/nnm.15.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicine aims to find novel solutions for urgent biomedical needs. Despite this, one of the most challenging hurdles that nanomedicine faces is to successfully target therapeutic nanoparticles to cells of interest in vivo. As for any biomaterials, once in vivo, nanoparticles can interact with plasma biomolecules, forming new entities for which the name protein coronas (PCs) have been coined. The PC can influence the in vivo biological fate of a nanoparticle. Thus for guaranteeing the desired function of an engineered nanomaterial in vivo, it is crucial to dissect its PC in terms of formation and evolution within the body. In this contribution we will review the 'good' and 'bad' sides of the PC, starting from the scientific aspects to the technological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniele Maiolo
- Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina c/o Laboratory of Nanostructured Fluorinated Materials (NFMLab), Department of Chemistry, Materials, & Chemical Engineering 'Giulio Natta', Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Pablo Del Pino
- CIC Biomagune, San Sebastian, Spain.,Fachbereich Physik, Philipps Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Pierangelo Metrangolo
- Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina c/o Laboratory of Nanostructured Fluorinated Materials (NFMLab), Department of Chemistry, Materials, & Chemical Engineering 'Giulio Natta', Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy.,VTT-Technical Research Centre of Finland, FI-02044 VTT, Espoo, Finland
| | - Wolfgang J Parak
- CIC Biomagune, San Sebastian, Spain.,Fachbereich Physik, Philipps Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Francesca Baldelli Bombelli
- Fondazione Centro Europeo Nanomedicina c/o Laboratory of Nanostructured Fluorinated Materials (NFMLab), Department of Chemistry, Materials, & Chemical Engineering 'Giulio Natta', Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
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16
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Selective redox-responsive drug release in tumor cells mediated by chitosan based glycolipid-like nanocarrier. J Control Release 2015; 206:91-100. [PMID: 25796347 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 154] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2014] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The redox responsive nanocarriers have made a considerable progress in achieving triggered drug release by responding to the endogenous occurring difference between the extra- and intra- cellular redox environments. Despite the promises, this redox difference exists both in normal and tumor tissue. So a non-selective redox responsive drug delivery system may result in an undesired drug release in normal cells and relevant side-effects. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a chitosan based glycolipid-like nanocarrier (CSO-ss-SA) which selectively responded to the reducing environment in tumor cells. The CSO-ss-SA showed an improved reduction-sensitivity which only fast degraded and released drug in 10mM levels of glutathione (GSH). The CSO-ss-SA could transport the drug fast into the human ovarian cancer SKOV-3 cells and human normal liver L-02 cells by internalization, but only fast release drug in SKOV-3 cells. By regulating the intracellular GSH concentration in SKOV-3 cells, it indicated that the cellular inhibition of the PTX-loaded CSO-ss-SA showed a positive correlation with the GSH concentration. The CSO-ss-SA was mainly located in the liver, spleen and tumor in vivo, which evidenced the passive tumor targeting ability. Despite the high uptake of liver and spleen, drug release was mainly occurred in tumor. PTX-loaded CSO-ss-SA achieved a remarkable tumor growth inhibition effect with rather low dose of PTX. This study demonstrates that a smartly designed glycolipid-like nanocarrier with selective redox sensitivity could serve as an excellent platform to achieve minimal toxicity and rapid intracellular drug release in tumor cells.
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17
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Brülisauer L, Gauthier MA, Leroux JC. Disulfide-containing parenteral delivery systems and their redox-biological fate. J Control Release 2014; 195:147-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 06/06/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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18
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D'Andrea C, Pezzoli D, Malloggi C, Candeo A, Capelli G, Bassi A, Volonterio A, Taroni P, Candiani G. The study of polyplex formation and stability by time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of SYBR Green I-stained DNA. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2014; 13:1680-9. [PMID: 25308511 DOI: 10.1039/c4pp00242c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Polyplexes are nanoparticles formed by the self-assembly of DNA/RNA and cationic polymers specifically designed to deliver exogenous genetic material to cells by a process called transfection. There is a general consensus that a subtle balance between sufficient extracellular protection and intracellular release of nucleic acids is a key factor for successful gene delivery. Therefore, there is a strong need to develop suitable tools and techniques for enabling the monitoring of the stability of polyplexes in the biological environment they face during transfection. In this work we propose time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy in combination with SYBR Green I-DNA dye as a reliable tool for the in-depth characterization of the DNA/vector complexation state. As a proof of concept, we provide essential information on the assembly and disassembly of complexes formed between DNA and each of three cationic polymers, namely a novel promising chitosan-graft-branched polyethylenimine copolymer (Chi-g-bPEI), one of its building block 2 kDa bPEI and the gold standard transfectant 25 kDa bPEI. Our results highlight the higher information content provided by the time-resolved studies of SYBR Green I/DNA, as compared to conventional steady state measurements of ethidium bromide/DNA that enabled us to draw relationships among fluorescence lifetime, polyplex structural changes and transfection efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cosimo D'Andrea
- Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, Milano, 20133, Italy.
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19
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Su CW, Fan TH, Li WM, Chen SY. Synergistic combination therapy using a lipid shell-droplet core nanosphere with tunable thickness. Chem Commun (Camb) 2014; 50:11291-4. [PMID: 24875625 DOI: 10.1039/c4cc02717e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A newly-designed drug carrier composed of an internal droplet core and a thickness-controllable shell was successfully developed. By co-delivering paclitaxel, doxorubicin and quantum dots simultaneously, this combinational drug delivery system could achieve in vitro fluorescence imaging, chemotherapeutic and oxidation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Wei Su
- Department of Materials Sciences and Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 30010, Taiwan.
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20
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Lucotti A, Tommasini M, Pezzoli D, Candiani G. Molecular interactions of DNA with transfectants: a study based on infrared spectroscopy and quantum chemistry as aids to fluorescence spectroscopy and dynamic light scattering analyses. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra08845j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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21
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Brülisauer L, Valentino G, Morinaga S, Cam K, Thostrup Bukrinski J, Gauthier MA, Leroux JC. Bio-reduction of Redox-Sensitive Albumin Conjugates in FcRn-Expressing Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201404238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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22
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Brülisauer L, Valentino G, Morinaga S, Cam K, Thostrup Bukrinski J, Gauthier MA, Leroux JC. Bio-reduction of Redox-Sensitive Albumin Conjugates in FcRn-Expressing Cells. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:8392-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201404238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Viglianisi C, Di Pilla V, Menichetti S, Rotello VM, Candiani G, Malloggi C, Amorati R. Linking an α-tocopherol derivative to cobalt(0) nanomagnets: magnetically responsive antioxidants with superior radical trapping activity and reduced cytotoxicity. Chemistry 2014; 20:6857-60. [PMID: 24782361 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201402289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Covalent attachment of a phenolic antioxidant analogue of α-tocopherol to graphite-coated magnetic cobalt nanoparticles (CoNPs) provided a novel magnetically responsive antioxidant capable of preventing the autoxidation of organic materials and showing a reduced toxicity toward human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Viglianisi
- Department of Chemistry "U. Schiff'', Università di Firenze, Via della Lastruccia, 3-13, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino (Italy), Fax: (+39) 055-4573531
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24
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Ghilardi A, Pezzoli D, Bellucci MC, Malloggi C, Negri A, Sganappa A, Tedeschi G, Candiani G, Volonterio A. Synthesis of Multifunctional PAMAM–Aminoglycoside Conjugates with Enhanced Transfection Efficiency. Bioconjug Chem 2013; 24:1928-36. [DOI: 10.1021/bc4003635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Ghilardi
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Daniele Pezzoli
- Politecnico
di Milano Research Unit, National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology - INSTM, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Maria Cristina Bellucci
- Department
of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Chiara Malloggi
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Armando Negri
- Department
of Veterinary Science and Public Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Aurora Sganappa
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Gabriella Tedeschi
- Department
of Veterinary Science and Public Health, Università degli Studi di Milano, via Celoria 10, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Gabriele Candiani
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
- Politecnico
di Milano Research Unit, National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology - INSTM, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Alessandro Volonterio
- Department
of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, via Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milano, Italy
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25
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Opposing influence of intracellular and membrane thiols on the toxicity of reducible polycations. Biomaterials 2013; 34:8843-50. [PMID: 23948163 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.07.095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Toxicity of polycations has been recognized since their first use in gene delivery. Bioreducible polycations attract attention because of their improved safety due to selective intracellular degradation by glutathione (GSH). Here we present a systematic study of the toxicity of bioreducible poly(amido amine)s (PAA). PAA with increasing content of disulfide bonds were synthesized by Michael addition. Toxicity of PAA was evaluated in two cell lines with different innate levels of intracellular GSH. Increasing the content of disulfide bonds decreased the toxicity of PAA, with more significant decrease observed in cells with high GSH. Depleting intracellular GSH by diethyl maleate resulted in increased toxicity of bioreducible PAA. In contrast, increasing the GSH concentrations by growing cells in hypoxic conditions resulted in further decreased toxicity compared with cells grown in normoxic conditions. The presence of exofacial plasma membrane thiols selectively increased toxicity of bioreducible PAA while having no effect on non-degradable controls. These results improve our understanding of the cellular mechanisms of polycation toxicity. They also shed light on the opposing effects of different cellular thiol pools on the toxicity of bioreducible polycations.
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