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Zorova LD, Abramicheva PA, Andrianova NV, Babenko VA, Zorov SD, Pevzner IB, Popkov VA, Semenovich DS, Yakupova EI, Silachev DN, Plotnikov EY, Sukhikh GT, Zorov DB. Targeting Mitochondria for Cancer Treatment. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:444. [PMID: 38675106 PMCID: PMC11054825 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16040444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
There is an increasing accumulation of data on the exceptional importance of mitochondria in the occurrence and treatment of cancer, and in all lines of evidence for such participation, there are both energetic and non-bioenergetic functional features of mitochondria. This analytical review examines three specific features of adaptive mitochondrial changes in several malignant tumors. The first feature is characteristic of solid tumors, whose cells are forced to rebuild their energetics due to the absence of oxygen, namely, to activate the fumarate reductase pathway instead of the traditional succinate oxidase pathway that exists in aerobic conditions. For such a restructuring, the presence of a low-potential quinone is necessary, which cannot ensure the conventional conversion of succinate into fumarate but rather enables the reverse reaction, that is, the conversion of fumarate into succinate. In this scenario, complex I becomes the only generator of energy in mitochondria. The second feature is the increased proliferation in aggressive tumors of the so-called mitochondrial (peripheral) benzodiazepine receptor, also called translocator protein (TSPO) residing in the outer mitochondrial membrane, the function of which in oncogenic transformation stays mysterious. The third feature of tumor cells is the enhanced retention of certain molecules, in particular mitochondrially directed cations similar to rhodamine 123, which allows for the selective accumulation of anticancer drugs in mitochondria. These three features of mitochondria can be targets for the development of an anti-cancer strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubava D. Zorova
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Polina A. Abramicheva
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
| | - Nadezda V. Andrianova
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
| | - Valentina A. Babenko
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Savva D. Zorov
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina B. Pevzner
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vasily A. Popkov
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry S. Semenovich
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
| | - Elmira I. Yakupova
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
| | - Denis N. Silachev
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
| | - Egor Y. Plotnikov
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Gennady T. Sukhikh
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
| | - Dmitry B. Zorov
- A.N. Belozersky Research Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (L.D.Z.); (P.A.A.); (V.A.B.); (S.D.Z.); (I.B.P.); (V.A.P.); (D.S.S.); (E.I.Y.); (D.N.S.); (E.Y.P.)
- V.I. Kulakov National Medical Research Center of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Perinatology, 117997 Moscow, Russia
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2
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Gómez-Lázaro L, Martín-Sabroso C, Aparicio-Blanco J, Torres-Suárez AI. Assessment of In Vitro Release Testing Methods for Colloidal Drug Carriers: The Lack of Standardized Protocols. Pharmaceutics 2024; 16:103. [PMID: 38258113 PMCID: PMC10819705 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics16010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Although colloidal carriers have been in the pipeline for nearly four decades, standardized methods for testing their drug-release properties remain to be established in pharmacopeias. The in vitro assessment of drug release from these colloidal carriers is one of the most important parameters in the development and quality control of drug-loaded nano- and microcarriers. This lack of standardized protocols occurs due to the difficulties encountered in separating the released drug from the encapsulated one. This review aims to compare the most frequent types of release testing methods (i.e., membrane diffusion techniques, sample and separate methods and in situ detection techniques) in terms of the advantages and disadvantages of each one and of the key parameters that influence drug release in each case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Gómez-Lázaro
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.G.-L.); (C.M.-S.); (A.I.T.-S.)
| | - Cristina Martín-Sabroso
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.G.-L.); (C.M.-S.); (A.I.T.-S.)
- Institute of Industrial Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Juan Aparicio-Blanco
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.G.-L.); (C.M.-S.); (A.I.T.-S.)
- Institute of Industrial Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Isabel Torres-Suárez
- Department of Pharmaceutics and Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (L.G.-L.); (C.M.-S.); (A.I.T.-S.)
- Institute of Industrial Pharmacy, Complutense University Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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3
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Di Nunzio MR, Douhal A. Robust Inclusion Complex of Topotecan Comprised within a Rhodamine-Labeled β-Cyclodextrin: Competing Proton and Energy Transfer Processes. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:1620. [PMID: 37376069 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15061620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Monitoring the biological fate of medicaments within the environments of cancer cells is an important challenge which is nowadays the object of intensive studies. In this regard, rhodamine-based supramolecular systems are one of the most suitable probes used in drug delivery thanks to their high emission quantum yield and sensitivity to the environment which helps to track the medicament in real time. In this work, we used steady-state and time-resolved spectroscopy techniques to investigate the dynamics of the anticancer drug, topotecan (TPT), in water (pH ~6.2) in the presence of a rhodamine-labeled methylated β-cyclodextrin (RB-RM-βCD). A stable complex of 1:1 stoichiometry is formed with a Keq value of ~4 × 104 M-1 at room temperature. The fluorescence signal of the caged TPT is reduced due to: (1) the CD confinement effect; and (2) a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) process from the trapped drug to the RB-RM-βCD occurring in ~43 ps with 40% efficiency. These findings provide additional knowledge about the spectroscopic and photodynamic interactions between drugs and fluorescent functionalized CDs, and may lead to the design of new fluorescent CD-based host-guest nanosystems with efficient FRET to be used in bioimaging for drug delivery monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Rosaria Di Nunzio
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica and INAMOL, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Av. Carlos III, s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain
| | - Abderrazzak Douhal
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales y Bioquímica and INAMOL, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Av. Carlos III, s/n, 45071 Toledo, Spain
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4
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Figueiredo P, González RD, Carvalho ATP. Insights into the Degradation of Polymer-Drug Conjugates by an Overexpressed Enzyme in Cancer Cells. J Med Chem 2023; 66:2761-2772. [PMID: 36787193 PMCID: PMC9969400 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Intensive efforts have been made to provide better treatments to cancer patients. Currently, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have gained propulsion, as they can overcome the drawbacks of free drugs. However, drug stability inside the nanocapsule must be ensured to prevent burst release. To overcome this, drugs conjugated to amphiphilic copolymers, assembled into nanoparticles, can provide a sustained release if endogenously degraded. Thus, we have designed and assessed the drug release viability of polymer-drug conjugates by the human Carboxylesterase 2, for a targeted drug activation. We performed molecular dynamics simulations applying a quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics potential to study the degradation profiles of 30 designed conjugates, where six were predicted to be hydrolyzed by this enzyme. We further analyzed the enzyme-substrate environment to delve into what structural features may lead to successful hydrolysis. These findings contribute to the development of new medicines ensuring effective cancer treatments with fewer side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro
R. Figueiredo
- CNC
− Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Institute for Interdisciplinary
Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal,PhD
Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, Institute for Interdisciplinary
Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo D. González
- CNC
− Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Institute for Interdisciplinary
Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal,PhD
Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine, Institute for Interdisciplinary
Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, Casa Costa Alemão, 3030-789 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Alexandra T. P. Carvalho
- CNC
− Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Institute for Interdisciplinary
Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal,Department
of Biocatalysis and Isotope Chemistry, Almac
Sciences, Almac House, 20 Seagoe Industrial Estate, Craigavon BT63 5QD, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom,
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5
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Amlexanox-loaded nanoliposomes showing enhanced anti-inflammatory activity in cultured macrophages: A potential formulation for treatment of oral aphthous stomatitis. J Drug Deliv Sci Technol 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jddst.2022.104052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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6
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Lactone Stabilized by Crosslinked Cyclodextrin Metal-Organic Frameworks to Improve Local Bioavailability of Topotecan in Lung Cancer. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010142. [PMID: 36678769 PMCID: PMC9865350 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The protection of unstable anticancer molecules and their delivery to lesions are challenging issues in cancer treatment. Topotecan (TPT), a classic cytotoxic drug, is widely used for treating refractory lung cancer. However, the therapeutic effects of TPT are jeopardized by its active lactone form that is intrinsically hydrolyzed in physiological fluids, resulting in low bioavailability. Herein, the TPT-loaded crosslinked cyclodextrin metal-organic framework (TPT@CL-MOF) was engineered to improve the local bioavailability of TPT for the treatment of lung cancer. CL-MOF exhibited the efficient loading (12.3 wt%) of TPT with sustained release characteristics. In particular the formulation offered excellent protection in vitro against hydrolysis and increased the half-life of TPT from approximately 0.93 h to 22.05 h, which can be attributed to the host-guest interaction between cyclodextrin and TPT, as confirmed by molecular docking. The TPT@CL-MOF could effectively kill the cancer cells and inhibit the migration and invasion of B16F10 cells in vitro. Moreover, TPT@CL-MOF was efficiently distributed in the lungs after intravenous administration. In an in vivo study using a B16F10 pulmonary metastatic tumor model, TPT@CL-MOF significantly reduced the number and size of metastatic lung nodules at a reduced low dose by five times, and no noticeable side effects were observed. Therefore, this study provides a possible alternative therapy for the treatment of lung cancer with the camptothecin family drugs or other unstable therapeutically significant molecules.
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Proton-mediated burst of dual-drug loaded liposomes for biofilm dispersal and bacterial killing. J Control Release 2022; 352:460-471. [PMID: 36341930 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.10.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Exposure of infectious biofilms to dispersants induces high bacterial concentrations in blood that may cause sepsis. Preventing sepsis requires simultaneous biofilm dispersal and bacterial killing. Here, self-targeting DCPA(2-(4-((1,5-bis(octadecenoyl)1,5-dioxopentan-2-yl)carbamoyl)pyridin-1-ium-1-yl)acetate) liposomes with complexed water were self-assembled with ciprofloxacin loaded in-membrane and PEGylated as a lipid-membrane component, together with bromelain loaded in-core. Inside biofilms, DCPA-H2O and PEGylated ciprofloxacin became protonated, disturbing the balance in the lipid-membrane to cause liposome-burst and simultaneous release of bromelain and ciprofloxacin. Simultaneous release of bromelain and ciprofloxacin enhanced bacterial killing in Staphylococcus aureus biofilms as compared with free bromelain and/or ciprofloxacin. After tail-vein injection in mice, liposomes accumulated inside intra-abdominal staphylococcal biofilms. Subsequent liposome-burst and simultaneous release of bromelain and ciprofloxacin yielded degradation of the biofilm matrix by bromelain and higher bacterial killing without inducing septic symptoms as obtained by injection of free bromelain and ciprofloxacin. This shows the advantage of simultaneous release from liposomes of bromelain and ciprofloxacin inside a biofilm.
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Pal A, Goswami B, Thakur A. Cyclic vs. acyclic alkyne towards Hg 2+ ion detection: combined experimental and theoretical studies. NEW J CHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj05707c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Comparison between the alkynes in terminal and internally conjugated 1,3-diyne systems produces differences in molecular recognition, maintaining the HSAB principle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adwitiya Pal
- Department of Chemistry, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032, India
| | - Bappaditya Goswami
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur-741246, India
| | - Arunabha Thakur
- Department of Chemistry, Jadavpur University, Kolkata-700032, India
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9
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Is the Mitochondrial Membrane Potential (∆Ψ) Correctly Assessed? Intracellular and Intramitochondrial Modifications of the ∆Ψ Probe, Rhodamine 123. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23010482. [PMID: 35008907 PMCID: PMC8745654 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23010482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The mitochondrial membrane potential (∆Ψ) is the driving force providing the electrical component of the total transmembrane potential of hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps, which is utilized by the ATP synthase. The role of ∆Ψ is not limited to its role in bioenergetics since it takes part in other important intracellular processes, which leads to the mandatory requirement of the homeostasis of ∆Ψ. Conventionally, ∆Ψ in living cells is estimated by the fluorescence of probes such as rhodamine 123, tetramethylrodamine, etc. However, when assessing the fluorescence, the possibility of the intracellular/intramitochondrial modification of the rhodamine molecule is not taken into account. Such changes were revealed in this work, in which a comparison of normal (astrocytic) and tumor (glioma) cells was conducted. Fluorescent microscopy, flow cytometry, and mass spectrometry revealed significant modifications of rhodamine molecules developing over time, which were prevented by amiodarone apparently due to blocking the release of xenobiotics from the cell and their transformation with the participation of cytochrome P450. Obviously, an important role in these processes is played by the increased retention of rhodamines in tumor cells. Our data require careful evaluation of mitochondrial ∆Ψ potential based on the assessment of the fluorescence of the mitochondrial probe.
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Zhang Z, Pan Y, Zhao Y, Ren M, Li Y, Lu G, Wu K, He S. Topotecan-loaded thermosensitive nanocargo for tumor therapy: In vitro and in vivo analyses. Int J Pharm 2021; 606:120871. [PMID: 34246742 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2021.120871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This study demonstrates the development of topotecan (TCN) loaded thermosensitive nanocargos (TCN-TS-NC) for intramuscular (IM) administration with enhanced antitumor activity. In this regards, TCN loaded temperature dependent solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) were prepared with micro-emulsion method, which were then incorporated into temperature sensitive poloxamer solution to develop TCN-TS-NC. The particle size, entrapment efficiency (%EE), zeta potential and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis of the TCN-TS-NC were performed. Moreover, the inject-ability, release pattern, apoptosis, cellular uptake, pharmacokinetics and antitumor studies of the TCN-TS-NC were attained and compared with TCN solution and TCN-Emulgel (poloxamer solution containing TCN). At room temperature, the TCN loaded SLNs were solid and poloxamer solution remains liquid, however, TCN loaded SLNs melted to liquid and Emulgel converted into gel from, at body temperature, resulting controlled release of the incorporated drug. The TCN-TS-NC showed enhanced cellular uptake and better apoptosis. Similarly, it reduces Cmax and sustained its level for a significantly longer time in rats, as compared to the TCN-Emulgel and TCN solution. Moreover, a significantly improved antitumor activity was observed in TCN-TS-NC treated tumor bearing athymic nude mice when compared with the control, TCN solution and TCN-Emulgel applied mice. Thus, the TCN-TS-NC system showed control release of the drug with no initial fast effect. Furthermore, it enhanced the antitumor activity of TCN with comparatively no toxicity. It is therefore concluded that TCN-TS-NC could be a potentially more suitable drug delivery system for the delivery of TCN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyong Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yan Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yan Zhao
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Mudan Ren
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Yarui Li
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Guifang Lu
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Kaichun Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases, and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shuixiang He
- Department of Gastroenterology, First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Shaanxi, China.
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11
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Dai J, Chen M, Xu D, Li H, Qiao Y, Ke X, Ci T. Self-assembly delivery system based on small-molecule camptothecin prodrug for treatment of colorectal carcinoma. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2021; 16:355-372. [PMID: 33591852 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2020-0453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to prepare small-molecule camptothecin (CPT) prodrugs and evaluate their effectiveness in colorectal carcinoma therapy. Prodrug nanoparticles (NPs) were physicochemically characterized and evaluated for their cytotoxicity in human colon cancer (HCT116) cell lines. The antitumor efficacy of the NPs was evaluated in HCT116 tumor-bearing mice. The prepared NPs exhibited high drug loading capacity (32% of CPT w/w) and also kept a high active lactone fraction of CPT (>85%) during circulation. The NPs were internalized into tumor cells efficiently compared with free drug and significantly enhanced the drug's therapeutic efficacy. The developed small-molecule CPT prodrug NPs could be a promising strategy in the clinical therapy of colorectal carcinoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jialing Dai
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Mo Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Dongmei Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Huangjuan Li
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Yingyu Qiao
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Xue Ke
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China
| | - Tianyuan Ci
- Department of Pharmaceutics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, PR China.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, PR China
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12
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Saraf S, Jain A, Tiwari A, Verma A, Jain SK. Engineered liposomes bearing camptothecin analogue for tumour targeting: in vitro and ex-vivo studies. J Liposome Res 2020; 31:326-341. [DOI: 10.1080/08982104.2020.1801725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shivani Saraf
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
| | - Ankit Jain
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
- Department of Materials Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | - Ankita Tiwari
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
| | - Amit Verma
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
| | - Sanjay K. Jain
- Pharmaceutics Research Projects Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagar, India
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13
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Pal A, Das KM, Goswami B, Thakur A. Microwave-Assisted Neat Synthesis of a Ferrocene Appended Phenolphthalein Diyne: A Designed Synthetic Scaffold for Hg 2+ Ion. Inorg Chem 2020; 59:10099-10112. [PMID: 32609511 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.0c01236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A C2-symmetric internally conjugated 1,3-dialkyne system 5, containing phenolphthalein as a fluorophore and ferrocene as a redox moiety, has been synthesized via a microwave-assisted synthetic procedure. Compound 5 was synthesized by Cu-catalyzed Glaser-Hay coupling using a microwave reactor in neat condition for the first time. Compound 5 was found to be highly selective toward Fe3+, Cu2+, and Hg2+ ions via multichannels. Interestingly, Fe3+ and Cu2+ ions simply promote the oxidation of ferrocene unit to ferrocenium ion without binding to the receptor, whereas Hg2+ binds with the receptor 5 (ΔE1/2 = 71 mV). The oxidation and binding phenomena were investigated by optical and electrochemical analyses. Furthermore, the binding site of Hg2+ ion with our designed probe was confirmed by 1H, 13C NMR and IR titrations, which indicated that conjugated dialkyne unit interacts with Hg2+ ion by a favorable soft-soft interaction. Both receptor 5 and its metal complex, [5·2Hg2+], are stable in the physiological pH range (pH = 6-7) and thermally stable up to 78 °C. The experimental results of metal binding have been further supported by quantum chemical calculations (DFT), which explore the favorable geometry of the free ligand as well as its Hg2+ complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adwitiya Pal
- Department of Chemistry, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
| | | | - Bappaditya Goswami
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur 741246, India
| | - Arunabha Thakur
- Department of Chemistry, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
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14
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Devina Verma, Mirza MA, Taleuzzaman M, Khuroo T, Talegaonkar S, Kumar R, Sahu PL, Iqbal Z. Development and Validation of Reversed Phase HPLC Method for the Simultaneous Detection of Lactone and Carboxylate Forms of Topotecan Along with Thymoquinone: Application to Nanoparticulate Anticancer Formulation System. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934820040152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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15
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Lu J, Tu P, Feng Y, Li N, Xu X, Li K, Yao Y, Han J, Liu W. Dietary interference on the oxidation and hydrolysis of liposomes during
in vitro
digestion. Int J Food Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/ijfs.14356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Junmeng Lu
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Piaohan Tu
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Yanwen Feng
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Na Li
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Xiankang Xu
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Kexuan Li
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Yixin Yao
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Jianzhong Han
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
| | - Weilin Liu
- School of Food Science and Biotechnology Zhejiang Gongshang University Hangzhou 310018 China
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16
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Tarhan T, Tural B, Tural S. Synthesis and characterization of new branched magnetic nanocomposite for loading and release of topotecan anti-cancer drug. J Anal Sci Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1186/s40543-019-0189-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
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17
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Li T, Cipolla D, Rades T, Boyd BJ. Drug nanocrystallisation within liposomes. J Control Release 2018; 288:96-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 09/01/2018] [Accepted: 09/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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18
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Zorova LD, Popkov VA, Plotnikov EY, Silachev DN, Pevzner IB, Jankauskas SS, Babenko VA, Zorov SD, Balakireva AV, Juhaszova M, Sollott SJ, Zorov DB. Mitochondrial membrane potential. Anal Biochem 2018; 552:50-59. [PMID: 28711444 PMCID: PMC5792320 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1088] [Impact Index Per Article: 181.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2017] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm) generated by proton pumps (Complexes I, III and IV) is an essential component in the process of energy storage during oxidative phosphorylation. Together with the proton gradient (ΔpH), ΔΨm forms the transmembrane potential of hydrogen ions which is harnessed to make ATP. The levels of ΔΨm and ATP in the cell are kept relatively stable although there are limited fluctuations of both these factors that can occur reflecting normal physiological activity. However, sustained changes in both factors may be deleterious. A long-lasting drop or rise of ΔΨm vs normal levels may induce unwanted loss of cell viability and be a cause of various pathologies. Among other factors, ΔΨm plays a key role in mitochondrial homeostasis through selective elimination of dysfunctional mitochondria. It is also a driving force for transport of ions (other than H+) and proteins which are necessary for healthy mitochondrial functioning. We propose additional potential mechanisms for which ΔΨm is essential for maintenance of cellular health and viability and provide recommendations how to accurately measure ΔΨm in a cell and discuss potential sources of artifacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ljubava D Zorova
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation; International Laser Center, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Vasily A Popkov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Egor Y Plotnikov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Denis N Silachev
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Irina B Pevzner
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Stanislovas S Jankauskas
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Valentina A Babenko
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Savva D Zorov
- Faculty of Bioengineering and Bioinformatics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Anastasia V Balakireva
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Magdalena Juhaszova
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven J Sollott
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Dmitry B Zorov
- A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russian Federation; Laboratory of Cardiovascular Science, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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19
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Centelles MN, Wright M, So PW, Amrahli M, Xu XY, Stebbing J, Miller AD, Gedroyc W, Thanou M. Image-guided thermosensitive liposomes for focused ultrasound drug delivery: Using NIRF-labelled lipids and topotecan to visualise the effects of hyperthermia in tumours. J Control Release 2018; 280:87-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2018.04.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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20
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A comparison of two biorelevant in vitro drug release methods for nanotherapeutics based on advanced physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modelling. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2018; 127:462-470. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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21
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Nothnagel L, Wacker MG. How to measure release from nanosized carriers? Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 120:199-211. [PMID: 29751101 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Novel drug delivery systems exhibit great potential in the formulation of poorly soluble compounds but have also been applied to reduce side effects of highly active drug molecules. Despite all efforts, there are only few technologies available to investigate the in vitro release of next-generation nanotherapeutics. In the following, different approaches for testing the drug release from nanoparticles in the fields of formulation development and quality control will be discussed. A variety of methods is available, starting from dialysis-based equipment, in situ measurements, flow-through devices and sample and separate setups. If possible, these methods should enable a more rapid formulation development and quality control of nanosized carriers as well as improve the prediction of in vivo performance and clinical outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Nothnagel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Nanosciences, Fraunhofer-Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Matthias G Wacker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology and Nanosciences, Fraunhofer-Institute for Molecular Biology and Applied Ecology (IME), 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany; Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, 60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany.
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22
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Zorova LD, Popkov VA, Plotnikov EJ, Silachev DN, Pevzner IB, Jankauskas SS, Zorov SD, Babenko VA, Zorov DB. Functional Significance of the Mitochondrial Membrane Potential. BIOCHEMISTRY MOSCOW SUPPLEMENT SERIES A-MEMBRANE AND CELL BIOLOGY 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990747818010129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Sugumaran A, Ponnusamy C, Kandasamy P, Krishnaswami V, Palanichamy R, Kandasamy R, Lakshmanan M, Natesan S. Development and evaluation of camptothecin loaded polymer stabilized nanoemulsion: Targeting potential in 4T1-breast tumour xenograft model. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 116:15-25. [PMID: 28987538 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Targeted delivery of anticancer agents is poised to improve cancer therapy, for which polymers can serve as targeting ligands or nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic agents. In this study, we have developed and evaluated the efficacy of a camptothecin (CPT)-loaded polymer stabilized nanoemulsion (PSNE) for the passive targeted delivery to breast cancer. Based on the pseudo-ternary phase diagrams, PSNEs were developed using capmul MCM:poloxamer 407 (4:1), solutol HS 15:simulsol P23 (1:2) and water. CPT polymer mixture was developed by solvent evaporation technique. The PSNEs were characterized for droplet size distribution, plasma protein adsorption, drug release, in-vivo targeting potential, hemolytic potential, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, in-vivo biodistribution and CPT lactone ring stability. The developed PSNEs showed uniform droplet distribution, extended drug release (76.59±6.12% at 24h), acceptable hemolytic potential, significant cytotoxicity (IC50=176±4.3ng/mL) and genotoxicity against MCF-7 cancer cells but low DNA damage potential in human peripheral blood lymphocytes. The efficiency of PSNEs for the targeted delivery of CPT into the tumour regions was documented in 4T1-breast tumour xenografted BALB/c mice. In-vivo biodistribution study shows that 7105.84±568.46ng/g of CPT was passively targeted from PSNE to breast cancer tissue. About 80% of the lactone form was stable for 24h. Taken together, our study provides a promising strategy for developing PSNE-targeted drug delivery system for the breast cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abimanyu Sugumaran
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India; Department of Pharmaceutics, SRM College of Pharmacy, SRM University, Kattankulathur, India
| | - Chandrasekar Ponnusamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | - Palanivel Kandasamy
- Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | - Venkateshwaran Krishnaswami
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | - Rajaguru Palanichamy
- Department of Biotechnology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | - Ruckmani Kandasamy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India
| | | | - Subramanian Natesan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Bharathidasan Institute of Technology, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli, India.
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24
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Lee Y, Thompson DH. Stimuli-responsive liposomes for drug delivery. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2017; 9:10.1002/wnan.1450. [PMID: 28198148 PMCID: PMC5557698 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 240] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The ultimate goal of drug delivery is to increase the bioavailability and reduce the toxic side effects of the active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) by releasing them at a specific site of action. In the case of antitumor therapy, association of the therapeutic agent with a carrier system can minimize damage to healthy, nontarget tissues, while limit systemic release and promoting long circulation to enhance uptake at the cancerous site due to the enhanced permeation and retention effect (EPR). Stimuli-responsive systems have become a promising way to deliver and release payloads in a site-selective manner. Potential carrier systems have been derived from a wide variety of materials, including inorganic nanoparticles, lipids, and polymers that have been imbued with stimuli-sensitive properties to accomplish triggered release based on an environmental cue. The unique features in the tumor microenvironment can serve as an endogenous stimulus (pH, redox potential, or unique enzymatic activity) or the locus of an applied external stimulus (heat or light) to trigger the controlled release of API. In liposomal carrier systems triggered release is generally based on the principle of membrane destabilization from local defects within bilayer membranes to effect release of liposome-entrapped drugs. This review focuses on the literature appearing between November 2008-February 2016 that reports new developments in stimuli-sensitive liposomal drug delivery strategies using pH change, enzyme transformation, redox reactions, and photochemical mechanisms of activation. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 2017, 9:e1450. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1450 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - D H Thompson
- Department of Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
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25
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In vitro assay for measuring real time topotecan release from liposomes: release kinetics and cellular internalization. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2017; 7:544-557. [DOI: 10.1007/s13346-017-0380-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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26
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Fugit KD, Anderson BD. Ion-Pairing Contribution to the Liposomal Transport of Topotecan as Revealed by Mechanistic Modeling. J Pharm Sci 2016; 106:1149-1161. [PMID: 28007561 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2016.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Actively loaded liposomal formulations of anticancer agents have been widely explored due to their high drug encapsulation efficiencies and prolonged drug retention. Mathematical models to predict and optimize drug loading and release kinetics from these nanoparticle formulations would be useful in their development and may allow researchers to tune release profiles. Such models must account for the driving forces as influenced by the physicochemical properties of the drug and the microenvironment, and the liposomal barrier properties. This study employed mechanistic modeling to describe the active liposomal loading and release kinetics of the anticancer agent topotecan (TPT). The model incorporates ammonia transport resulting in generation of a pH gradient, TPT dimerization, TPT lactone ring-opening and -closing interconversion kinetics, chloride transport, and transport of TPT-chloride ion-pairs to describe the active loading and release kinetics of TPT in the presence of varying chloride concentrations. Model-based predictions of the kinetics of active loading at varying loading concentrations of TPT and release under dynamic dialysis conditions were in reasonable agreement with experiments. These findings identify key attributes to consider in optimizing and predicting loading and release of liposomal TPT that may also be applicable to liposomal formulations of other weakly basic pharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Fugit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Development, Metrics Contract Services, Greenville, NC 27834
| | - Bradley D Anderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536.
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27
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Antonenko YN, Denisov SS, Silachev DN, Khailova LS, Jankauskas SS, Rokitskaya TI, Danilina TI, Kotova EA, Korshunova GA, Plotnikov EY, Zorov DB. A long-linker conjugate of fluorescein and triphenylphosphonium as mitochondria-targeted uncoupler and fluorescent neuro- and nephroprotector. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2016; 1860:2463-2473. [PMID: 27450891 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2016.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 07/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Limited uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation is known to be beneficial in various laboratory models of diseases. Linking a triphenyl-phosphonium cation to fluorescein through a decyl (C10) spacer yields a fluorescent uncoupler, coined mitoFluo, that selectively accumulates in energized mitochondria (Denisov et al., Chem.Commun. 2014). METHODS Proton-transport activity of mitoFluo was tested in liposomes reconstituted with bacteriorhodopsin. To examine the uncoupling action on mitochondria, we monitored mitochondrial membrane potential in parallel with oxygen consumption. Neuro- and nephroprotecting activity was detected by a limb-placing test and a kidney ischemia/reperfusion protocol, respectively. RESULTS We compared mitoFluo properties with those of its newly synthesized analog having a short (butyl) spacer (C4-mitoFluo). MitoFluo, but not C4-mitoFluo, caused collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential resulting in stimulation of mitochondrial respiration. The dramatic difference in the uncoupling activity of mitoFluo and C4-mitoFluo was in line with the difference in their protonophoric activity on a lipid membrane. The accumulation of mitoFluo in mitochondria was more pronounced than that of C4-mitoFluo. MitoFluo decreased the rate of ROS production in mitochondria. MitoFluo was effective in preventing consequences of brain trauma in rats: it suppressed trauma-induced brain swelling and reduced a neurological deficit. Besides, mitoFluo attenuated acute kidney injury after ischemia/reperfusion in rats. CONCLUSIONS A long alkyl linker was proved mandatory for mitoFluo to be a mitochondria- targeted uncoupler. MitoFluo showed high protective efficacy in certain models of oxidative stress-related diseases. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE MitoFluo is a candidate for developing therapeutic and fluorescence imaging agents to treat brain and kidney pathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri N Antonenko
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia.
| | - Stepan S Denisov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia; Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Denis N Silachev
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Ljudmila S Khailova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Stanislovas S Jankauskas
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Tatyana I Rokitskaya
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Tatyana I Danilina
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Elena A Kotova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Galina A Korshunova
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Egor Y Plotnikov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Dmitry B Zorov
- Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow 119991, Russia
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28
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Martínez-Carmona M, Lozano D, Colilla M, Vallet-Regí M. Selective topotecan delivery to cancer cells by targeted pH-sensitive mesoporous silica nanoparticles. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra07763c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Topotecan targeted pH-sensitive delivery system based in mesoporous silica nanoparticles coated with a multifunctional biopolymer coating for cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Martínez-Carmona
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica
- Facultad de Farmacia
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre i+12
- 28040 Madrid
| | - D. Lozano
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica
- Facultad de Farmacia
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre i+12
- 28040 Madrid
| | - M. Colilla
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica
- Facultad de Farmacia
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre i+12
- 28040 Madrid
| | - M. Vallet-Regí
- Departamento de Química Inorgánica y Bioinorgánica
- Facultad de Farmacia
- Universidad Complutense de Madrid
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Hospital 12 de Octubre i+12
- 28040 Madrid
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29
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An in vitro assessment of liposomal topotecan simulating metronomic chemotherapy in combination with radiation in tumor-endothelial spheroids. Sci Rep 2015; 5:15236. [PMID: 26468877 PMCID: PMC4606561 DOI: 10.1038/srep15236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Low dose metronomic chemotherapy (LDMC) refers to prolonged administration of low dose chemotherapy designed to minimize toxicity and target the tumor endothelium, causing tumor growth inhibition. Topotecan (TPT) when administered at its maximum tolerated dose (MTD) is often associated with systemic hematological toxicities. Liposomal encapsulation of TPT enhances efficacy by shielding it from systemic clearance, allowing greater uptake and extended tissue exposure in tumors. Extended release of TPT from liposomal formulations also has the potential to mimic metronomic therapies with fewer treatments. Here we investigate potential toxicities of equivalent doses of free and actively loaded liposomal TPT (LTPT) and compare them to a fractionated low dose regimen of free TPT in tumor-endothelial spheroids (TES) with/without radiation exposure for a prolonged period of 10 days. Using confocal microscopy, TPT fluorescence was monitored to determine the accumulation of drug within TES. These studies showed TES, being more reflective of the in vivo tumor microenvironment, were more sensitive to LTPT in comparison to free TPT with radiation. More importantly, the response of TES to low-dose metronomic TPT with radiation was comparable to similar treatment with LTPT. This TES study suggests nanoparticle formulations designed for extended release of drug can simulate LDMC in vivo.
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30
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Fugit KD, Xiang TX, Choi DH, Kangarlou S, Csuhai E, Bummer PM, Anderson BD. Mechanistic model and analysis of doxorubicin release from liposomal formulations. J Control Release 2015; 217:82-91. [PMID: 26310713 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2015.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2015] [Revised: 07/28/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Reliable and predictive models of drug release kinetics in vitro and in vivo are still lacking for liposomal formulations. Developing robust, predictive release models requires systematic, quantitative characterization of these complex drug delivery systems with respect to the physicochemical properties governing the driving force for release. These models must also incorporate changes in release due to the dissolution media and methods employed to monitor release. This paper demonstrates the successful development and application of a mathematical mechanistic model capable of predicting doxorubicin (DXR) release kinetics from liposomal formulations resembling the FDA-approved nanoformulation DOXIL® using dynamic dialysis. The model accounts for DXR equilibria (e.g. self-association, precipitation, ionization), the change in intravesicular pH due to ammonia release, and dialysis membrane transport of DXR. The model was tested using a Box-Behnken experimental design in which release conditions including extravesicular pH, ammonia concentration in the release medium, and the dilution of the formulation (i.e. suspension concentration) were varied. Mechanistic model predictions agreed with observed DXR release up to 19h. The predictions were similar to a computer fit of the release data using an empirical model often employed for analyzing data generated from this type of experimental design. Unlike the empirical model, the mechanistic model was also able to provide reasonable predictions of release outside the tested design space. These results illustrate the usefulness of mechanistic modeling to predict drug release from liposomal formulations in vitro and its potential for future development of in vitro - in vivo correlations for complex nanoformulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Fugit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, US
| | - Tian-Xiang Xiang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, US
| | - Du H Choi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering, Inje University, Gimhae-si, Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea
| | - Sogol Kangarlou
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, US
| | - Eva Csuhai
- Division of Natural Sciences and Math, Transylvania University, Lexington, KY 40508, US
| | - Paul M Bummer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, US
| | - Bradley D Anderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, US.
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Csuhai E, Kangarlou S, Xiang TX, Ponta A, Bummer P, Choi D, Anderson BD. Determination of Key Parameters for a Mechanism-Based Model to Predict Doxorubicin Release from Actively Loaded Liposomes. J Pharm Sci 2015; 104:1087-98. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.24307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Revised: 09/24/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Wang L, Shen Y, Liu S, Yang J, Liang W, Li D, He Y. Fluorescent reversible regulation based on the interactions of topotecan hydrochloride, neutral red and quantum dots. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2015; 136 Pt C:1607-1613. [PMID: 25459722 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2014.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The interactions of topotecan hydrochloride (THC), neutral red (NR) and thioglycolic acid (TGA) capped CdTe/CdS quantum dots (QDs) built a solid base for the controlling of the fluorescent reversible regulation of the system. This study was developed by means of ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) absorption, fluorescence (FL), resonance Rayleigh scattering (RRS) spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Corresponding experimental results revealed that the fluorescence of TGA-CdTe/CdS QDs could be effectively quenched by NR, while the RRS of the QDs enhanced gradually with the each increment of NR concentration. After the addition of THC, the strong covalent conjugation between NR and THC which was in carboxylate state enabled NR to be dissociated from the surface of TGA-CdTe/CdS QDs to form more stable complex with THC, thereby enhancing the fluorescence of the TGA-CdTe/CdS QDs-NR system. What is more, through analyzing the optical properties and experimental data of the reaction between TGA-CdTe/CdS QDs and NR, the possible reaction mechanism of the whole system was discussed. This combination of multiple spectroscopic techniques could contribute to the investigation for the fluorescent reversible regulation of QDs and a method could also be established to research the interactions between camptothecin drugs and dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linlin Wang
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Yizhong Shen
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Shaopu Liu
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Jidong Yang
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China; School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Chongqing Three Gorges University, Chongqing, Wanzhou 404000, PR China
| | - Wanjun Liang
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Dan Li
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China
| | - Youqiu He
- Key Laboratory on Luminescence and Real-Time Analysis, Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, PR China.
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Fugit KD, Jyoti A, Upreti M, Anderson BD. Insights into accelerated liposomal release of topotecan in plasma monitored by a non-invasive fluorescence spectroscopic method. J Control Release 2015; 197:10-9. [PMID: 25456833 PMCID: PMC4356028 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/13/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
A non-invasive fluorescence method was developed to monitor liposomal release kinetics of the anticancer agent topotecan (TPT) in physiological fluids and subsequently used to explore the cause of accelerated release in plasma. Analyses of fluorescence excitation spectra confirmed that unencapsulated TPT exhibits a red shift in its spectrum as pH is increased. This property was used to monitor TPT release from actively loaded liposomal formulations having a low intravesicular pH. Mathematical release models were developed to extract reliable rate constants for TPT release in aqueous solutions monitored by fluorescence and release kinetics obtained by HPLC. Using the fluorescence method, accelerated TPT release was observed in plasma as previously reported in the literature. Simulations to estimate the intravesicular pH were conducted to demonstrate that accelerated release correlated with alterations in the low intravesicular pH. This was attributed to the presence of ammonia in plasma samples rather than proteins and other plasma components generally believed to alter release kinetics in physiological samples. These findings shed light on the critical role that ammonia may play in contributing to the preclinical/clinical variability and performance seen with actively-loaded liposomal formulations of TPT and other weakly-basic anticancer agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D Fugit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Amar Jyoti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Meenakshi Upreti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Bradley D Anderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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Release, partitioning, and conjugation stability of doxorubicin in polymer micelles determined by mechanistic modeling. Pharm Res 2014; 32:1752-63. [PMID: 25407546 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1573-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 11/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To better understand the mechanistic parameters that govern drug release from polymer micelles with acid-labile linkers. METHODS A mathematical model was developed to describe drug release from block copolymer micelles composed of a poly(ethylene glycol) shell and a poly(aspartate) core, modified with drug binding linkers for pH-controlled release [hydrazide (HYD), aminobenzoate-hydrazide (ABZ), or glycine-hydrazide (GLY)]. Doxorubicin (Dox) was conjugated to the block copolymers through acid-labile hydrazone bonds. The polymer drug conjugates were used to prepare three polymer micelles (HYD-M, ABZ-M, and GLY-M). Drug release studies were performed to identify the factors governing pH-sensitive release of Dox. The effect of prolonged storage of copolymer material on release kinetics was also observed. RESULTS Biphasic drug release kinetics were observed for all three micelle formulations. The developed model was able to quantify observed release kinetics upon the inclusion of terms for unconjugated Dox and two populations of conjugated Dox. Micelle/water partitioning of Dox was also incorporated into the model and found significant in all micelles under neutral conditions but reduced under acidic conditions. The drug binding linker played a major role in drug release as the extent of Dox release at specific time intervals was greater at pH 5.0 than at pH 7.4 (HYD-M > ABZ-M > GLY-M). Mathematical modeling was also able to correlate changes in release kinetics with the instability of the hydrazone conjugation of Dox during prolonged storage. CONCLUSION These results illustrate the potential utility of mechanistic modeling to better assess release characteristics intrinsic to a particular drug/nanoparticle system.
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Luo GF, Chen WH, Liu Y, Lei Q, Zhuo RX, Zhang XZ. Multifunctional enveloped mesoporous silica nanoparticles for subcellular co-delivery of drug and therapeutic peptide. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6064. [PMID: 25317538 PMCID: PMC5377537 DOI: 10.1038/srep06064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A multifunctional enveloped nanodevice based on mesoporous silica nanoparticle (MSN) was delicately designed for subcellular co-delivery of drug and therapeutic peptide to tumor cells. Mesoporous silica MCM-41 nanoparticles were used as the core for loading antineoplastic drug topotecan (TPT). The surface of nanoparticles was decorated with mitochondria-targeted therapeutic agent (Tpep) containing triphenylphosphonium (TPP) and antibiotic peptide (KLAKLAK)2 via disulfide linkage, followed by coating with a charge reversal polyanion poly(ethylene glycol)-blocked-2,3-dimethylmaleic anhydride-modified poly(L-lysine) (PEG-PLL(DMA)) via electrostatic interaction. It was found that the outer shielding layer could be removed at acidic tumor microenvironment due to the degradation of DMA blocks and the cellular uptake was significantly enhanced by the formation of cationic nanoparticles. After endocytosis, due to the cleavage of disulfide bonds in the presence of intracellular glutathione (GSH), pharmacological agents (Tpep and TPT) could be released from the nanoparticles and subsequently induce specific damage of tumor cell mitochondria and nucleus respectively with remarkable synergistic antitumor effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo-Feng Luo
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Wei-Hai Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Yun Liu
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Qi Lei
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Ren-Xi Zhuo
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xian-Zheng Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education & Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, P. R. China
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Fugit KD, Anderson BD. Dynamic, nonsink method for the simultaneous determination of drug permeability and binding coefficients in liposomes. Mol Pharm 2014; 11:1314-25. [PMID: 24628304 PMCID: PMC3993891 DOI: 10.1021/mp400765n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2013] [Revised: 02/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Drug release from liposomal formulations is governed by a complex interplay of kinetic (i.e., drug permeability) and thermodynamic factors (i.e., drug partitioning to the bilayer surface). Release studies under sink conditions that attempt to mimic physiological conditions are insufficient to decipher these separate contributions. The present study explores release studies performed under nonsink conditions coupled with appropriate mathematical models to describe both the release kinetics and the conditions in which equilibrium is established. Liposomal release profiles for a model anticancer agent, topotecan, under nonsink conditions provided values for both the first-order rate constant for drug release and the bilayer/water partition coefficient. These findings were validated by conducting release studies under sink conditions via dynamic dialysis at the same temperature and buffer pH. A nearly identical rate constant for drug release could be obtained from dynamic dialysis data when appropriate volume corrections were applied and a mechanism-based mathematical model was employed to account for lipid bilayer binding and dialysis membrane transport. The usefulness of the nonsink method combined with mathematical modeling was further explored by demonstrating the effects of topotecan dimerization and bilayer surface charge potential on the bilayer/water partition coefficient at varying suspension concentrations of lipid and drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D. Fugit
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University
of Kentucky, A323A ASTeCC
Building, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - Bradley D. Anderson
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University
of Kentucky, A323A ASTeCC
Building, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
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