Mannosylated nanocarriers mediated site-specific drug delivery for the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases: A state of the art review

Current status of mannose receptor-targeted drug delivery for improved anti-HIV therapy

In the pursuit of achieving better therapeutic outcomes in the treatment of HIV, innovative drug delivery strategies have been extensively explored. Mannose receptors, which are primarily found on macrophages and dendritic cells, offer promising targets for drug delivery due to their involvement in HIV pathogenesis. This review article comprehensively evaluates recent drug delivery system advancements targeting the mannose receptor. We have systematically described recent developments in creating and utilizing drug delivery platforms, including nanoparticles, liposomes, micelles, noisomes, dendrimers, and other nanocarrier systems targeted at the mannose receptor. These strategies aim to enhance drug delivery specificity, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy while decreasing off-target effects and systemic toxicity. Furthermore, the article delves into how mannose receptors and HIV interact, highlighting the potential for exploiting this interaction to enhance drug delivery to infected cells. The review covers essential topics, such as the rational design of nanocarriers for mannose receptor recognition, the impact of physicochemical properties on drug delivery performance, and how targeted delivery affects the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anti-HIV agents. The challenges of these novel strategies, including immunogenicity, stability, and scalability, and future research directions in this rapidly growing area are discussed. The knowledge synthesis presented in this review underscores the potential of mannose receptor-based targeted drug delivery as a promising avenue for advancing HIV treatment. By leveraging the unique properties of mannose receptors, researchers can design drug delivery systems that cater to individual needs, overcome existing limitations, and create more effective and patient-friendly treatments in the ongoing fight against HIV/AIDS.

Glycosylated nanoplatforms: From glycosylation strategies to implications and opportunities for cancer theranostics

Glycosylated nanoplatforms have emerged as promising tools in the field of cancer theranostics, integrating both therapeutic and diagnostic functionalities. These nanoscale platforms are composed of different materials such as lipids, polymers, carbons, and metals that can be modified with glycosyl moieties to enhance their targeting capabilities towards cancer cells. This review provides an overview of different modification strategies employed to introduce glycosylation onto nanoplatforms, including chemical conjugation, enzymatic methods, and bio-orthogonal reactions. Furthermore, the potential applications of glycosylated nanoplatforms in cancer theranostics are discussed, focusing on their roles in drug delivery, imaging, and combination therapy. The ability of these nanoplatforms to selectively target cancer cells through specific interactions with overexpressed glycan receptors is highlighted, emphasizing their potential for enhancing efficacy and reducing the side effects compared to conventional therapies. In addition, the incorporation of diagnostic components onto the glycosylated nanoplatforms provided the capability of simultaneous imaging and therapy and facilitated the real-time monitoring of treatment response. Finally, challenges and future perspectives in the development and translation of glycosylated nanoplatforms for clinical applications are addressed, including scalability, biocompatibility, and regulatory considerations. Overall, this review underscores the significant progress made in the field of glycosylated nanoplatforms and their potential to revolutionize cancer theranostics.

Lipoplexes' Structure, Preparation, and Role in Managing Different Diseases

Lipid-based vectors are becoming promising alternatives to traditional therapies over the last 2 decades specially for managing life-threatening diseases like cancer. Cationic lipids are the most prevalent non-viral vectors utilized in gene delivery. The increasing number of clinical trials about lipoplex-based gene therapy demonstrates their potential as well-established technology that can provide robust gene transfection. In this regard, this review will summarize this important point. These vectors however have a modest transfection efficiency. This limitation can be partly addressed by using functional lipids that provide a plethora of options for investigating nucleic acid-lipid interactions as well as in vitro and in vivo nucleic acid delivery for biomedical applications. Despite their lower gene transfer efficiency, lipid-based vectors such as lipoplexes have several advantages over viral ones: they are less toxic and immunogenic, can be targeted, and are simple to produce on a large scale. Researchers are actively investigating the parameters that are essential for an effective lipoplex delivery method. These include factors that influence the structure, stability, internalization, and transfection of the lipoplex. Thorough understanding of the design principles will enable synthesis of customized lipoplex formulations for life-saving therapy.

Quality by design (QbD) approach-based development of optimized nanocarrier to achieve quality target product profile (QTPP)-targeted lymphatic delivery

Background.Insulin, commonly used for diabetes treatment, needs better ways to improve its effectiveness and safety due to its challenges with poor permeability and stability. Various system has been developed for oral peptide delivery. The non-targeted system can prevent gastric and enzymatic degradation of peptides but cannot increase the bulk transport of peptides across the membrane. However, the non-selectivity is the limitation of the existing system. Numerous carbohydrate-binding receptors overexpressed on intestinal macrophage cells (M-cells) of gut-associated lymphoid tissue. It is the most desirable site for receptor-mediated endocytosis and lymphatic drug delivery of peptides.Objective. The prime objective of the study was to fabricate mannose ligand conjugated nanoparticles (MNPs) employing a quality-by-design approach to address permeability challenges after oral administration. Herein, the study's secondary objective of this study is to identify the influencing factor for producing quality products. Considering this objective, the Lymphatic uptake of NPs was selected as a quality target product profile (QTPP), and a systematic study was conducted to identify the critical formulation attributes (CFAs) and critical process parameters (CPP) influencing critical quality attributes (CQAs). Mannosylated Chitosan concentrations (MCs) and TPP concentrations were identified as CFAs, and stirring speed was identified as CPP.Methods. MNPs were prepared by the inotropic gelation method and filled into the enteric-coated capsule to protect from acidic environments. The effect of CFAs and CPP on responses like particle size (X) and entrapment (Y) was observed by Box-Behnken design (BBD). ANOVA statistically evaluated the result to confirm a significant level (p< 0.05). The optimal conditions of NPs were obtained by constructing an overlay plot and determining the desirability value. HPLC and zeta-seizer analysis characterized the lyophilized NPs. Cell-line studies were performed to confirm the safety and M-cell targeting of NPs to enhance Insulin oral bioavailability.Results. The morphology of NPs was revealed by SEM. The developed NPs showed a nearly oval shape with the average size, surface potential, and % drug entrapment were 245.52 ± 3.37 nm, 22.12 ± 2.13 mV, and 76.15 ± 1.3%, respectively. MTT assay result exhibited that MNPs safe and Confocal imaging inference that NPs selectively uptake by the M-cell.Conclusion. BBD experimental design enables the effective formulation of optimized NPs. The statistical analysis estimated a clear assessment of the significance of the process and formulation variable. Cell line study confirms that NPs are safe and effectively uptake by the cell.

Blood-brain barrier-crossing dendrimers for glioma theranostics

Glioma, as a disease of the central nervous system, is difficult to be treated due to the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that can severely hamper the efficacy of most therapeutic agents. Hence, drug delivery to glioma in an efficient, safe, and specifically targeted manner is the key to effective treatment of glioma. With the advances in nanotechnology, targeted drug delivery systems have been extensively explored to deliver chemotherapeutic agents, nucleic acids, and contrast agents. Among these nanocarriers, dendrimers have played a significant role since they possess highly branched structures, and are easy to be decorated, thus offering numerous binding sites for various drugs and ligands. Dendrimers can be designed to cross the BBB for glioma targeting, therapy or theranostics. In this review, we provide a concise overview of dendrimer-based carrier designs including dendrimer surface modification with hydroxyl termini, peptides, and transferrin etc. for glioma imaging diagnostics, chemotherapy, gene therapy, or imaging-guided therapy. Finally, the future perspectives of dendrimer-based glioma theraputics are also briefly discussed.

Divergent approach to nanoscale glycomicelles and photo-responsive supramolecular glycogels. Implications for drug delivery and photoswitching lectin affinity

The field of stimuli-responsive supramolecular biomaterials has rapidly advanced in recent years, with potential applications in diverse areas such as cancer theranostics, tissue engineering, and catalysis. However, designing molecular materials that exhibit predetermined hierarchical self-assembly to control the size, morphology, surface chemistry, and responsiveness of the final nanostructures remains a significant challenge. In this study, we present a divergent synthetic approach for the fabrication of spherical micelles and functional 1D-glyconanotube-based photoresponsive gels from structurally related diazobenzene/diacetylene glycolipids. The resulting nanostructures were characterized using NMR, TEM, and SEM, confirming the formation of spherical and tubular nanostructures in both the gel and solution states. Upon UV irradiation, a reversible gel-sol transition was observed, resulting from the photoswitching of the azobenzene unit from the stretched trans form to the compact, metastable cis form. Our gels were shown to enable spatio-temporal control of the adhesion and release of the lectin Concanavalin A, demonstrating potential use as regenerable biomaterials to fight against infections with toxins and pathogens. Additionally, our micelles and gels were evaluated as nanocontainers for loading and controlled release of hydrophobic dyes and antitumoural agents, suggesting their possible use as smart theranostic drug delivery systems.

Poly(2-oxazoline)-Based Polyplexes as a PEG-Free Plasmid DNA Delivery Platform

The present study expands the versatility of cationic poly(2-oxazoline) (POx) copolymers as a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-free platform for gene delivery to immune cells, such as monocytes and macrophages. Several block copolymers are developed by varying nonionic hydrophilic blocks (poly(2-methyl-2-oxazoline) (pMeOx) or poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) (pEtOx), cationic blocks, and an optional hydrophobic block (poly(2-isopropyl-2-oxazoline) (iPrOx). The cationic blocks are produced by side chain modification of 2-methoxy-carboxyethyl-2-oxazoline (MestOx) block precursor with diethylenetriamine (DET) or tris(2-aminoethyl)amine (TREN). For the attachment of a targeting ligand, mannose, azide-alkyne cycloaddition click chemistry methods are employed. Of the two cationic side chains, polyplexes made with DET-containing copolymers transfect macrophages significantly better than those made with TREN-based copolymer. Likewise, nontargeted pEtOx-based diblock copolymer is more active in cell transfection than pMeOx-based copolymer. The triblock copolymer with hydrophobic block iPrOx performs poorly compared to the diblock copolymer which lacks this additional block. Surprisingly, attachment of a mannose ligand to either copolymer is inhibitory for transfection. Despite similarities in size and design, mannosylated polyplexes result in lower cell internalization compared to nonmannosylated polyplexes. Thus, PEG-free, nontargeted DET-, and pEtOx-based diblock copolymer outperforms other studied structures in the transfection of macrophages and displays transfection levels comparable to GeneJuice, a commercial nonlipid transfection reagent.

Surface engineering of lipid nanoparticles: targeted nucleic acid delivery and beyond

Harnessing surface engineering strategies to functionalize nucleic acid-lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) for improved performance has been a hot research topic since the approval of the first siRNA drug, patisiran, and two mRNA-based COVID-19 vaccines, BNT162b2 and mRNA-1273. Currently, efforts have been mainly made to construct targeted LNPs for organ- or cell-type-specific delivery of nucleic acid drugs by conjugation with various types of ligands. In this review, we describe the surface engineering strategies for nucleic acid-LNPs, considering ligand types, conjugation chemistries, and incorporation methods. We then outline the general purification and characterization techniques that are frequently used following the engineering step and emphasize the specific techniques for certain types of ligands. Next, we comprehensively summarize the currently accessible organs and cell types, as well as the other applications of the engineered LNPs. Finally, we provide considerations for formulating targeted LNPs and discuss the challenges of successfully translating the "proof of concept" from the laboratory into the clinic. We believe that addressing these challenges could accelerate the development of surface-engineered LNPs for targeted nucleic acid delivery and beyond.

Progressing nanotechnology to improve targeted cancer treatment: overcoming hurdles in its clinical implementation

The use of nanotechnology has the potential to revolutionize the detection and treatment of cancer. Developments in protein engineering and materials science have led to the emergence of new nanoscale targeting techniques, which offer renewed hope for cancer patients. While several nanocarriers for medicinal purposes have been approved for human trials, only a few have been authorized for clinical use in targeting cancer cells. In this review, we analyze some of the authorized formulations and discuss the challenges of translating findings from the lab to the clinic. This study highlights the various nanocarriers and compounds that can be used for selective tumor targeting and the inherent difficulties in cancer therapy. Nanotechnology provides a promising platform for improving cancer detection and treatment in the future, but further research is needed to overcome the current limitations in clinical translation.

Mannose-Functionalized Isoniazid-Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Pulmonary Delivery: In Vitro Prospects and In Vivo Therapeutic Efficacy Assessment

Resistance to isoniazid (INH) is common and increases the possibility of acquiring multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. For this study, isoniazid-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (INH-NLCs) were developed and effectively functionalized with mannose (Man) to enhance the residence time of the drug within the lungs via specific delivery and increase the therapeutic efficacy of the formulation. The mannose-functionalized isoniazid-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier (Man-INH-NLC) formulation was evaluated with respect to various formulation parameters, namely, encapsulation efficiency (EE), drug loading (DL), average particle size (PS), zeta potential (ZP), polydispersity index (PDI), in vitro drug release (DR), and release kinetics. The in vitro inhalation behavior of the developed formulation after nebulization was investigated using an Andersen cascade impactor via the estimation of the mass median aerosolized diameter (MMAD) and geometric aerodynamic diameter (GAD) and subsequently found to be suitable for effective lung delivery. An in vivo pharmacokinetic study was carried out in a guinea pig animal model, and it was demonstrated that Man-INH-NLC has a longer residence time in the lungs with improved pharmacokinetics when compared with unfunctionalized INH-NLC, indicating the enhanced therapeutic efficacy of the Man-INH-NLC formulation. Histopathological analysis led us to determine that the extent of tissue damage was more severe in the case of the pure drug solution of isoniazid compared to the Man-INH-NLC formulation after nebulization. Thus, the nebulization of Man-INH-NLC was found to be safe, forming a sound basis for enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of the drug for improved management in the treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis.

Pulmonary Delivery of Recombinant Human Bleomycin Hydrolase Using Mannose-Modified Hierarchically Porous UiO-66 for Preventing Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Fibrosis

Bleomycins (BLMs) are widely used in clinics as antitumor agents. However, BLM-based chemotherapies often accompany severe pulmonary fibrosis (PF). Human bleomycin hydrolase is a cysteine protease that can convert BLMs into inactive deamido-BLMs. In this study, mannose-modified hierarchically porous UiO-66 (MHP-UiO-66) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate the recombinant human bleomycin hydrolase (rhBLMH). When rhBLMH@MHP-UiO-66 was intratracheally instilled into the lungs, the NPs were transported into the epithelial cells, and rhBLMH prevented the lungs from PF during BLM-based chemotherapies. Encapsulation of rhBLMH in the MHP-UiO-66 NPs protects the enzyme from proteolysis in physiological conditions and enhances cellular uptake. In addition, the MHP-UiO-66 NPs significantly enhance the pulmonary accumulation of intratracheally instilled rhBLMH, thus providing more efficient protection of the lungs against BLMs during the chemotherapies.

Mannose in vaccine delivery

Adjuvants and vaccine delivery systems are used widely to improve the efficacy of vaccines. Their primary roles are to protect antigen from degradation and allow its delivery and uptake by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Carbohydrates, including various structures/forms of mannose, have been broadly utilized to target carbohydrate binding receptors on APCs. This review summarizes basic functions of the immune system, focusing on the role of mannose receptors in antigen recognition by APCs. The most popular strategies to produce mannosylated vaccines via conjugation and formulation are presented. The efficacy of mannosylated vaccines is discussed in detail, taking into consideration factors, such as valency and number of mannose in mannose ligands, mannose density, length of spacers, special arrangement of mannose ligands, and routes of administration of mannosylated vaccines. The advantages and disadvantages of mannosylation strategy and future directions in the development of mannosylated vaccines are also debated.

Sustained delivery approaches to improving adaptive immune responses

The immune system is one of the most important, complex biological networks regulating and protecting human health. Its precise modulation can prevent deadly infections and fight cancer. Accordingly, prophylactic vaccines and cancer immunotherapies are some of the most powerful technologies to protect against potential dangers through training of the immune system. Upon immunization, activation and maturation of B and T cells of the adaptive immune system are necessary for development of proper humoral and cellular protection. Yet, the exquisite organization of the immune system requires spatiotemporal control over the exposure of immunomodulatory signals. For example, while the human immune system has evolved to develop immunity to natural pathogenic infections that often last for weeks, current prophylactic vaccination technologies only expose the immune system to immunomodulatory signals for hours to days. It has become clear that leveraging sustained release technologies to prolong immunogen and adjuvant exposure can increase the potency, durability, and quality of adaptive immune responses. Over the past several years, tremendous breakthroughs have been made in the design of novel biomaterials such as nanoparticles, microparticles, hydrogels, and microneedles that can precisely control and the presentation of immunomodulatory signals to the immune system. In this review, we discuss relevant sustained release strategies and their corresponding benefits to cellular and humoral responses.

Targeted delivery to macrophages and dendritic cells by chemically modified mannose ligand-conjugated siRNA

Extrahepatic delivery of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) may have applications in the development of novel therapeutic approaches. However, reports on such approaches are limited, and the scarcity of reports concerning the systemically targeted delivery of siRNAs with effective gene silencing activity presents a challenge. We herein report for the first time the targeted delivery of CD206-targetable chemically modified mannose–siRNA (CMM–siRNA) conjugates to macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs). CMM–siRNA exhibited a strong binding ability to CD206 and selectively delivered contents to CD206-expressing macrophages and DCs. Furthermore, the conjugates demonstrated strong gene silencing ability with long-lasting effects and protein downregulation in CD206-expressing cells in vivo. These findings could broaden the use of siRNA technology, provide additional therapeutic opportunities, and establish a basis for further innovative approaches for the targeted delivery of siRNAs to not only macrophages and DCs but also other cell types.

Macrophage-Targeted Hydroxychloroquine Nanotherapeutics for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease with unclear pathogenesis. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ), despite its moderate anti-RA efficacy, is among the few clinical drugs used for RA therapy. Macrophages reportedly play a vital role in RA. Here, we designed and explored macrophage-targeted HCQ nanotherapeutics based on mannose-functionalized polymersomes (MP-HCQ) for RA therapy. Notably, MP-HCQ exhibited favorable properties of less than 50 nm size, glutathione-accelerated HCQ release, and M1 phenotype macrophage (M1M) targetability, leading to repolarization of macrophages to anti-inflammatory M2 phenotype (M2M), reduced secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6), and upregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-10). The therapeutic studies in the zymosan-induced RA (ZIA) mouse model showed marked accumulation of MP-HCQ in the inflammation sites, ameliorated symptoms of RA joints, significantly reduced IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β, and increased IL-10 and TGF-β compared with free HCQ. The analyses of RA joints disclosed greatly amplified M2M and declined mature DCs, CD4⁺ T cells, and CD8⁺ T cells. In accordance, MP-HCQ significantly reduced the damage of RA joints, cartilages, and bones compared to free HCQ and non-targeted controls. Macrophage-targeted HCQ nanotherapeutics therefore appears as a highly potent treatment for RA.

Polysaccharide-based formulations as potential carriers for pulmonary delivery - A review of their properties and fates

Polysaccharides can be elite carriers for therapeutic molecules due to their versatility and low probability to trigger toxicity and immunogenic responses. Local and systemic therapies can be achieved through particle pulmonary delivery, a promising non-invasive alternative. Successful pulmonary delivery requires particles with appropriate flowability to reach alveoli and avoid premature clearance mechanisms. Polysaccharides can form micro-, nano-in-micro-, and large porous particles, aerogels, and hydrogels. Herein, the characteristics of polysaccharides used in drug formulations for pulmonary delivery are reviewed, providing insights into structure-function relationships. Charged polysaccharides can confer mucoadhesion, whereas the ability for specific sugar recognition may confer targeting capacity for alveolar macrophages. The method of particle preparation must be chosen considering the properties of the components and the delivery device to be utilized. The fate of polysaccharide-based carriers is dependent on enzyme-triggered hydrolytic and/or oxidative mechanisms, allowing their complete degradation and elimination through urine or reutilization of released monosaccharides.

Current understandings and clinical translation of nanomedicines for breast cancer therapy

Breast cancer is one of the most frequently diagnosed cancers that is threatening women's life. Current clinical treatment regimens for breast cancer often involve neoadjuvant and adjuvant systemic therapies, which somewhat are associated with unfavorable features. Also, the heterogeneous nature of breast cancers requires precision medicine that cannot be fulfilled by a single type of systemically administered drug. Taking advantage of the nanocarriers, nanomedicines emerge as promising therapeutic agents for breast cancer that could resolve the defects of drugs and achieve precise drug delivery to almost all sites of primary and metastatic breast tumors (e.g. tumor vasculature, tumor stroma components, breast cancer cells, and some immune cells). Seven nanomedicines as represented by Doxil® have been approved for breast cancer clinical treatment so far. More nanomedicines including both non-targeting and active targeting nanomedicines are being evaluated in the clinical trials. However, we have to realize that the translation of nanomedicines, particularly the active targeting nanomedicines is not as successful as people have expected. This review provides a comprehensive landscape of the nanomedicines for breast cancer treatment, from laboratory investigations to clinical applications. We also highlight the key advances in the understanding of the biological fate and the targeting strategies of breast cancer nanomedicine and the implications to clinical translation.

Chitosan-based nanodelivery systems for cancer therapy: Recent advances

Nowadays, cancer is one of the most prominent issues related to human health since it causes more than one-tenth of death cases throughout the world. On the other hand, routine therapeutic approaches in cancer suppression such as radiation therapy, chemotherapy, surgery, etc. due to their undesirable therapeutic outputs, including low efficiency in cancer inhibition, non-targeted drug delivery, nonselective distribution, and enormous side effects, have been indicated inefficient potency in cancer therapy or at least its growth inhibition. As a result, the development of novel and practical therapeutic methods such as nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems can be outstandingly beneficial in cancer suppression. Among various nanoparticles used in the delivery of bioactive to the tumor site, chitosan (CS) nanoparticles have received high attention. CS, poly [β-(1-4)-linked-2-amino-2-deoxy-d-glucose], is a natural linear amino polysaccharide derived from chitin which is made of irregularly distributed d-glucosamine and N-acetyl-d-glucosamine units. CS nanoparticles owing to their appropriate aspects, including nanometric size, great drug loading efficacy, ease of manipulation, non-toxicity, excellent availability and biocompatibility, good serum stability, long-term circulation time, suitable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics, non-immunogenicity, and enhanced drug solubility in the human body, have been designated as an efficient candidate for drug delivery systems. They can be involved in both passive (based on the enhanced permeability and retention effect cancer targeting) and active (receptor-mediated or stimuli-responsive cancer targeting) drug delivery systems for potential cancer therapy. This review presents the properties, preparation, modification, and numerous pharmaceutical applications of CS-based drug nanodelivery systems in the diagnosis and therapy of cancer.

Probing Critical Physical Properties of Lactose-Polyethylene Glycol Microparticles in Pulmonary Delivery of Chitosan Nanoparticles

Pulmonary delivery of chitosan nanoparticles is met with nanoparticle agglomeration and exhalation. Admixing lactose-based microparticles (surface area-weighted diameter~5 μm) with nanoparticles mutually reduces particle agglomeration through surface adsorption phenomenon. Lactose-polyethylene glycol (PEG) microparticles with different sizes, morphologies and crystallinities were prepared by a spray drying method using varying PEG molecular weights and ethanol contents. The chitosan nanoparticles were similarly prepared. In vitro inhalation performance and peripheral lung deposition of chitosan nanoparticles were enhanced through co-blending with larger lactose-PEG microparticles with reduced specific surface area. These microparticles had reduced inter-microparticle interaction, thereby promoting microparticle–nanoparticle interaction and facilitating nanoparticles flow into peripheral lung.

Engineering the Interface between Inorganic Nanoparticles and Biological Systems through Ligand Design

Nanoparticles (NPs) provide multipurpose platforms for a wide range of biological applications. These applications are enabled through molecular design of surface coverages, modulating NP interactions with biosystems. In this review, we highlight approaches to functionalize nanoparticles with "small" organic ligands (Mw < 1000), providing insight into how organic synthesis can be used to engineer NPs for nanobiology and nanomedicine.

Onco-Receptors Targeting in Lung Cancer via Application of Surface-Modified and Hybrid Nanoparticles: A Cross-Disciplinary Review

Lung cancer is among the most prevalent and leading causes of death worldwide. The major reason for high mortality is the late diagnosis of the disease, and in most cases, lung cancer is diagnosed at fourth stage in which the cancer has metastasized to almost all vital organs. The other reason for higher mortality is the uptake of the chemotherapeutic agents by the healthy cells, which in turn increases the chances of cytotoxicity to the healthy body cells. The complex pathophysiology of lung cancer provides various pathways to target the cancerous cells. In this regard, upregulated onco-receptors on the cell surface of tumor including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), integrins, transferrin receptor (TFR), folate receptor (FR), cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44) receptor, etc. could be exploited for the inhibition of pathways and tumor-specific drug targeting. Further, cancer borne immunological targets like T-lymphocytes, myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and dendritic cells could serve as a target site to modulate tumor activity through targeting various surface-expressed receptors or interfering with immune cell-specific pathways. Hence, novel approaches are required for both the diagnosis and treatment of lung cancers. In this context, several researchers have employed various targeted delivery approaches to overcome the problems allied with the conventional diagnosis of and therapy methods used against lung cancer. Nanoparticles are cell nonspecific in biological systems, and may cause unwanted deleterious effects in the body. Therefore, nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) need further advancement to overcome the problem of toxicity in the treatment of lung cancer. Moreover, the route of nanomedicines’ delivery to lungs plays a vital role in localizing the drug concentration to target the lung cancer. Surface-modified nanoparticles and hybrid nanoparticles have a wide range of applications in the field of theranostics. This cross-disciplinary review summarizes the current knowledge of the pathways implicated in the different classes of lung cancer with an emphasis on the clinical implications of the increasing number of actionable molecular targets. Furthermore, it focuses specifically on the significance and emerging role of surface functionalized and hybrid nanomaterials as drug delivery systems through citing recent examples targeted at lung cancer treatment.

Immunologically Inert Nanostructures as Selective Therapeutic Tools in Inflammatory Diseases

The current therapies based on immunosuppressant or new biologic drugs often show some limitations in term of efficacy and applicability, mainly because of their inadequate targeting and of unwanted adverse reactions they generate. To overcome these inherent problems, in the last decades, innovative nanocarriers have been developed to encapsulate active molecules and offer novel promising strategies to efficiently modulate the immune system. This review provides an overview of how it is possible, exploiting the favorable features of nanocarriers, especially with regard to their immunogenicity, to improve the bioavailability of novel drugs that selectively target immune cells in the context of autoimmune disorders and inflammatory diseases. A focus is made on nanoparticles that selectively target neutrophils in inflammatory pathologies.

In Vivo Insulin Peptide Autoantigen Delivery by Mannosylated Sodium Alginate Nanoparticles Delayed but Could Not Prevent the Onset of Type 1 Diabetes in Nonobese Diabetic Mice

Type 1 diabetes (T1D) is an autoimmune subtype of diabetes, mainly caused by the immune attack of self-insulin-producing cells. Immune modulation that delays the onset of T1D is able to reduce diabetic complications and mortality. We have previously reported that mannosylated sodium alginate nanoparticles (MAN-ALG) exhibited excellent dendritic cell targeting and in vivo antigen delivery efficacy. To investigate the role of MAN-ALG in an autoimmune context, we loaded the MAN-ALG with Ins2_9-23, a T1D autoantigen [MAN-ALG(PEP)], for T1D immune tolerance induction in nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice. We observed the delayed onset of T1D occurrence and some degree of blood glucose reduction accompanied by a larger islet area, attributable to augmented T-regulatory cell proportion in mice treated with MAN-ALG(PEP). However, MAN-ALG was also found to elicit lysosomal escape and cross-presentation of Ins2_9-23 in bone marrow-derived dendritic cells, leading to the immune activation of Ins2_9-23-recognizing T cells and destruction of Ins2_9-23-expressing islet cells. This dual impact resulted in delayed but a nonpreventive effect of MAN-ALG(PEP) on the T1D onset in NOD mice. Considering the potent immune stimulatory property of MAN-ALG, cautions should be implemented when using alginate-based biomaterials in an autoimmune context. Moreover, it is also noted that regarding the in vivo outcome of immune therapies, biomaterial-based delivery systems and their detailed role on immune regulation need to be examined.

Nanostructured lipid carrier-mediated lung targeted drug delivery system to enhance the safety and bioavailability of clofazimine

Tuberculosis (TB) disease is caused due to the infection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli which reside in alveolar macrophages (AMs). Clofazimine (CLF) has been reinstated clinically for the treatment of TB. However, major challenge of using CLF is its severe side-effects after oral administration. The present research was aimed to establish the safety and enhance the bioavailability of CLF by loading it into nanostructured lipid carriers (CLF-NLCs) and mannosylated NLCs (M-CLF-NLCs) to selectively target the drug toward AMs. The safety of CLF-NLCs and M-CLF-NLCs was evaluated by in vitro hemocompatibility studies, cell viability studies on macrophage J774 cell lines, and in vivo acute inhalation toxicity studies. The bioavailability was estimated by single-dose pharmacokinetics and biodistribution studies. Hemocompatibility studies showed normal RBCs count and least hemolysis of 0.23 ± 0.081% for M-CLF-NLCs treated group. Cell viability studies revealed greater safety of NLCs than CLF-drug dispersion in the concentration range of 2.5-25 μg/ml. In vivo acute toxicity studies revealed no physiological or behavioral changes and no mortality recorded over 14 days period. In pharmacokinetic studies, a maximum concentration of the drug (C_max) of 35.44 ± 0.34 μg/g from M-CLF-NLCs after 48 h and longer residence time in lung tissues observed due to its sustained release and mannose receptor-mediated endocytosis. M-CLF-NLCs showed a maximum AUC_0-∞ value of 2691.83 h μg/ml in lungs that indicated twofold greater bioavailability as compared to CLF-drug dispersion. Thus, mannosylated NLCs can be used as promising carriers for the safe and effective delivery of CLF via inhalation route for the management of TB disease.

Photoresponsive glyco-nanostructures integrated from supramolecular metallocarbohydrates for the reversible capture and release of lectins

Photo-controllable capture and release of proteins by glyco-nanostructures.

Modulation of Macrophages M1/M2 Polarization Using Carbohydrate-Functionalized Polymeric Nanoparticles

Exploiting surface endocytosis receptors using carbohydrate-conjugated nanocarriers brings outstanding approaches to an efficient delivery towards a specific target. Macrophages are cells of innate immunity found throughout the body. Plasticity of macrophages is evidenced by alterations in phenotypic polarization in response to stimuli, and is associated with changes in effector molecules, receptor expression, and cytokine profile. M1-polarized macrophages are involved in pro-inflammatory responses while M2 macrophages are capable of anti-inflammatory response and tissue repair. Modulation of macrophages’ activation state is an effective approach for several disease therapies, mediated by carbohydrate-coated nanocarriers. In this review, polymeric nanocarriers targeting macrophages are described in terms of production methods and conjugation strategies, highlighting the role of mannose receptor in the polarization of macrophages, and targeting approaches for infectious diseases, cancer immunotherapy, and prevention. Translation of this nanomedicine approach still requires further elucidation of the interaction mechanism between nanocarriers and macrophages towards clinical applications.

Mannose-anchored N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles for pulmonary administration of etofylline

Drug delivery to lungs via pulmonary administration offers potential for the development of new drug delivery systems. Here we fabricated the etofylline (ETO) encapsulated mannose-anchored N,N,N-trimethyl chitosan nanoparticles (Mn-TMC NPs). The prominent characteristics like biocompatibility, controlled release, targeted delivery, high penetrability, enhanced physical stability, and scalability mark Mn-TMC NPs as a viable alternative to various nanoplatform technologies for effective drug delivery. Mannosylation of TMC NPs leads to the evolution of new drug delivery vehicle with gratifying characteristics, and potential benefits in efficient drug therapy. It is widely accepted that following pulmonary administration, the introduction of mannose to the surface of drug nanocarriers provide selective macrophage targeting via receptor-mediated endocytosis. The fabricated Mn-TMC NPs exhibited particle size of 223.3 nm, PDI 0.490, and ζ-potential -19.1 mV, drug-loading capacity 76.26 ± 1.2%, and encapsulation efficiency of 91.75 ± 0.88%. Sustained drug release, biodegradation studies, stability, safety, and aerodynamic behavior revealed the effectiveness of prepared nanoformulation for pulmonary administration. In addition, the in vivo pharmacokinetic studies in Wistar rat model revealed a significant improvement in therapeutic efficacy of ETO, illustrating mannosylation a promising approach for efficient therapy of airway diseases following pulmonary administration.

Mannose-Decorated Dendritic Polyglycerol Nanocarriers Drive Antiparasitic Drugs To Leishmania infantum-Infected Macrophages

Macrophages are hosts for intracellular pathogens involved in numerous diseases including leishmaniasis. They express surface receptors that may be exploited for specific drug-targeting. Recently, we developed a PEGylated dendritic polyglycerol-based conjugate (PG–PEG) that colocalizes with intracellular parasite. We hereby study the effect of surface decoration with mannose units on the conjugates’ targeting ability toward leishmania intracellular parasites. Murine and human macrophages were exposed to fluorescently labeled mannosylated PG–PEG and uptake was quantified by flow cytometry analysis. Nanocarriers bearing five mannose units showed the highest uptake, which varied between 30 and 88% in the population in human and murine macrophages, respectively. The uptake was found to be dependent on phagocytosis and pinocytosis (80%), as well as clathrin-mediated endocytosis (79%). Confocal microscopy showed that mannosylated PG–PEGs target acidic compartments in macrophages. In addition, when both murine and human macrophages were infected and treated, colocalization between parasites and mannosylated nanoconjugates was observed. Leishmania-infected bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMM) showed avidity by mannosylated PG–PEG whereas non-infected macrophages rarely accumulated conjugates. Moreover, the antileishmanial activity of Amphotericin B was kept upon conjugation to mannosylated PG–PEG through a pH-labile linker. This study demonstrates that leishmania infected macrophages are selectively targeted by mannosylated PEGylated dendritic conjugates.

Role of pharmacokinetic consideration for the development of drug delivery systems: A historical overview

Drug delivery system is defined as a system or technology to achieve optimum therapeutic effects of drugs through precise control of their movements in the body. In order to optimize function of drug delivery systems aiming at targeting, their whole-body distribution profiles should be systematically evaluated and analyzed, where pharmacokinetic analysis based on the clearance concepts plays important role. Organ perfusion experiments combined with statistical moment analysis further supply detailed information on drug disposition at organ and cellular levels. Based on general relationship between physicochemical properties and distribution profile, macromolecular prodrugs or polymer conjugates of proteins are rationally designed and further introduction of ligand structure brings cell-specific delivery for them. These approaches are also applicable for particulate carriers such as liposomes and offer various opportunities for biological drugs such as nucleic acid drugs for their delivery. Mechanistic approach for dermal absorption analysis based on physiological skin model offers another opportunity in rational design of drug delivery. Potential of drug delivery technology in future medicines such as cell therapy and nanomaterial platform application is further discussed in relation to pharmacokinetic consideration.