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Yu Y, Wan Z, Wang JH, Yang X, Zhang C. Review of human pegivirus: Prevalence, transmission, pathogenesis, and clinical implication. Virulence 2022; 13:324-341. [PMID: 35132924 PMCID: PMC8837232 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2022.2029328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pegivirus (HPgV-1), previously known as GB virus C (GBV-C) or hepatitis G virus (HGV), is a single-stranded positive RNA virus belonging to the genus Pegivirus of the Flaviviridae family. It is transmitted by percutaneous injuries (PIs), contaminated blood and/or blood products, sexual contact, and vertical mother-to-child transmission. It is widely prevalent in general population, especially in high-risk groups. HPgV-1 viremia is typically cleared within the first 1–2 years of infection in most healthy individuals, but may persist for longer periods of time in immunocompromised individuals and/or those co-infected by other viruses. A large body of evidences indicate that HPgV-1 persistent infection has a beneficial clinical effect on many infectious diseases, such as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and hepatitis C. The beneficial effects seem to be related to a significant reduction of immune activation, and/or the inhabitation of co-infected viruses (e.g. HIV-1). HPgV-1 has a broad cellular tropism for lymphoid and myeloid cells, and preferentially replicates in bone marrow and spleen without cytopathic effect, implying a therapeutic potential. The paper aims to summarize the natural history, prevalence and distribution characteristics, and pathogenesis of HPgV-1, and discuss its association with other human viral diseases, and potential use in therapy as a biovaccine or viral vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaqi Yu
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China.,Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenzhou Wan
- Medical Laboratory of Taizhou Fourth People's Hospital, Taizhou, China
| | - Jian-Hua Wang
- Guangzhou Institutes of Biomedicine and Health, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xianguang Yang
- College of Life Sciences, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang, China
| | - Chiyu Zhang
- Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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Greenhalgh S, Schmidt R, Day T. Fighting the Public Health Burden of AIDS With the Human Pegivirus. Am J Epidemiol 2019; 188:1586-1594. [PMID: 31145443 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwz139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Highly active antiretroviral therapy has revolutionized the battle against human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS). From its current global rollout, HIV/AIDS morbidity and mortality has been greatly reduced, yet there exists substantial interest in the development of new therapies to further mitigate the HIV/AIDS health burden and to inhibit any fallout from the development of antiretroviral drug resistance. One potential intervention is the human pegivirus (HPgV). HPgV is not known to cause disease, and most remarkably it is shown to delay the progression of HIV to AIDS. However, the health benefit of increasing HPgV prevalence in the community of HIV-infected men remains unknown at the public health level. We evaluated the utility of HPgV biovaccination for mitigating the HIV/AIDS health burden using mathematical models. Importantly, our work considers the potential concern that HPgV will, itself, evolve to become disease-causing by permitting mutant disease-causing HPgV strains to potentially arise during treatment. Our findings show that HPgV biovaccination rates of 12.5%-50% annually could prevent 4.2-23.6 AIDS incidences and 3.3-18.8 AIDS deaths, and could save 2.9-18.6 disability-adjusted life years per 1,000 people. Together, these findings indicate that HPgV biovaccination could be an effective therapy for reducing HIV/AIDS morbidity and mortality, and thus warrants further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott Greenhalgh
- Department of Mathematics, Siena College, Loudonville, New York
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Rebecca Schmidt
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Troy Day
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
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Taklual W, Tang S, Yue W. Effect of human pegivirus route of transmission on the genetic distribution of the virus: an institution based cross-sectional study. Virol J 2019; 16:50. [PMID: 31023332 PMCID: PMC6482564 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-019-1161-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Human pegivirus (HPgV), formally called GB virus C (GBV-C), is a member of the pegivirus genus in Flaviviridae family. High prevalence of HPgV infection is seen among sex workers, blood transfusion recipients and intravenous drug users (IDUs). So far, there are seven genotypes and many subtypes identified in different countries. The predominant genotype in Asia including China is genotype 3, although genotype 7 has been reported recently in China. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the transmission routes of HPgV infection on the genotype distribution of the virus, to determine the prevalence rate, and identify the dominant genotype among men who have sex with men (MSM) and IDUs co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus type one (HIV-1) in Guangzhou, China. Methods A total of 131 MSM and 70 IDUs co-infected with HIV-1 were randomly selected in Guangdong Dermatology Hospital. HPgV RNA was detected by nested reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primers. The PCR products were sequenced and phylogenetically analyzed by using MEGA6.06 version software to determine the genotypes. Chi-square and Fisher exact test were implemented for comparing the proportion between different variables. Results The prevalence of HPgV infection was 32.9% among IDUs and 18.3% in MSM with a statistically significant difference between the two groups (p = 0.02). In IDU group, 82.6% infected with genotype 3 and the rest (17.4%) were categorized to genotype 7. Similarly, in MSM group, 83.3% belonged to genotype 3, and the remaining 16.7% were classified as sub-genotype 2a and 2b. Conclusion In Guangzhou, China, the prevalence rate of HPgV infection in IDUs was higher than MSM. The dominant genotype in the two groups was genotype 3. Our results indicated that routes of transmission did not affect the genotype distribution but did affect the prevalence rate of HPgV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wubet Taklual
- Department of Population Health, College of Health Sciences, Debre Tabor University, Post office box: 272, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia.
| | - Shixing Tang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wu Yue
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Chinese center for disease control and prevention, Beijing, China
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Blackard JT, Ma G, Welge JA, Taylor LE, Mayer KH, Klein RS, Celentano DD, Sobel JD, Jamieson DJ, King CC. Cytokine/chemokine expression associated with Human Pegivirus (HPgV) infection in women with HIV. J Med Virol 2017; 89:1904-1911. [PMID: 28460153 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A beneficial impact of the Human Pegivirus (HPgV)-formerly called GB virus C (GBV-C)-on HIV disease progression has been reported previously. One possible mechanism by which HPgV inhibits HIV replication is an alteration of the cytokine/chemokine milieu. Their expression has not been specifically evaluated in women despite their influence on disease progression and the possibility of gender-based differences in expression. Moreover, the impact of HPgV genotype on cytokine/chemokine expression is unknown. Sera levels of IL-2, IL-4, IL-7, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IL-13, IFNγ, TNFα, IP-10, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and TGF-β1 were quantified in 150 HIV-positive women based on HPgV RNA status. Cytokines/chemokines with detection rates of at least 50% included IL-2, IL-4, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12p70, IFNγ, TNFα, IP-10, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and TGF-β1 . Absolute values were significantly higher for HPgV positive compared to HPgV negative women for IL-7, IL-13, IL-12p70, and IFNγ. Absolute values were significantly lower for HPgV positive women for IL-4, IL-8, TGF-β1 , and IP-10. IFNγ values were higher for HPgV genotype 2 than for genotype 1 (P = 0.036). Further study of cytokine/chemokine regulation by HPgV may ultimately lead to the development of novel therapeutic agents to treat HIV infection and/or the design of vaccine strategies that mimic the "protective" effects of HPgV replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T Blackard
- Division of Digestive Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Gang Ma
- Division of Digestive Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Jeffrey A Welge
- Departments of Psychiatry and Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio
| | - Lynn E Taylor
- Miriam Hospital and Department of Medicine, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
| | - Kenneth H Mayer
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Fenway Institute, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert S Klein
- Hudson Infectious Diseases Associates, Briarcliff Manor, New York
| | - David D Celentano
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Jack D Sobel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan
| | - Denise J Jamieson
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Caroline C King
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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Wu H, Padhi A, Xu J, Gong X, Tien P. Evidence for Within-Host Genetic Recombination among the Human Pegiviral Strains in HIV Infected Subjects. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161880. [PMID: 27560699 PMCID: PMC4999292 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 08/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The non-pathogenic Human Pegivirus (HPgV, formerly GBV-C/HGV), the most prevalent RNA virus worldwide, is known to be associated with reduced morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected individuals. Although previous studies documented its ubiquity and important role in HIV-infected individuals, little is known about the underlying genetic mechanisms that maintain high genetic diversity of HPgV within the HIV-infected individuals. To assess the within-host genetic diversity of HPgV and forces that maintain such diversity within the co-infected hosts, we performed phylogenetic analyses taking into account 229 HPgV partial E1-E2 clonal sequences representing 15 male and 8 female co-infected HIV patients from Hubei province of central China. Our results revealed the presence of eleven strongly supported clades. While nine clades belonged to genotype 3, two clades belonged to genotype 2. Additionally, four clades that belonged to genotype 3 exhibited inter-clade recombination events. The presence of clonal sequences representing multiple clades within the HIV-infected individual provided the evidence of co-circulation of HPgV strains across the region. Of the 23 patients, six patients (i.e., five males and one female) were detected to have HPgV recombinant sequences. Our results also revealed that while male patients shared the viral strains with other patients, viral strains from the female patients had restricted dispersal. Taken together, the present study revealed that multiple infections with divergent HPgV viral strains may have caused within-host genetic recombination, predominantly in male patients, and therefore, could be the major driver in shaping genetic diversity of HPgV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoming Wu
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
| | - Abinash Padhi
- Department of Animal and Avian Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, 20742, MD, United States of America
| | - Junqiang Xu
- Hubei Provincial Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
| | - Xiaoyan Gong
- College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
- * E-mail: (PT); (XG)
| | - Po Tien
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, Hubei, China
- Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
- * E-mail: (PT); (XG)
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Blackard JT, Ma G, Welge JA, King CC, Taylor LE, Mayer KH, Klein RS, Celentano DD, Sobel JD, Jamieson DJ, Gardner L. GB Virus C (GBV-C) Infection in Hepatitis C Virus (HCV) Seropositive Women with or at Risk for HIV Infection. PLoS One 2014; 9:e114467. [PMID: 25493916 PMCID: PMC4262414 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0114467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background GB virus C (GBV-C) may have a beneficial impact on HIV disease progression; however, the epidemiologic characteristics of this virus are not well characterized. Behavioral factors and gender may lead to differential rates of GBV-C infection; yet, studies have rarely addressed GBV-C infections in women or racial/ethnic minorities. Therefore, we evaluated GBV-C RNA prevalence and genotype distribution in a large prospective study of high-risk women in the US. Results 438 hepatitis C virus (HCV) seropositive women, including 306 HIV-infected and 132 HIV-uninfected women, from the HIV Epidemiologic Research Study were evaluated for GBV-C RNA. 347 (79.2%) women were GBV-C RNA negative, while 91 (20.8%) were GBV-C RNA positive. GBV-C positive women were younger than GBV-C negative women. Among 306 HIV-infected women, 70 (22.9%) women were HIV/GBV-C co-infected. Among HIV-infected women, the only significant difference between GBV-negative and GBV-positive women was age (mean 38.4 vs. 35.1 years; p<0.001). Median baseline CD4 cell counts and plasma HIV RNA levels were similar. The GBV-C genotypes were 1 (n = 31; 44.3%), 2 (n = 36; 51.4%), and 3 (n = 3; 4.3%). The distribution of GBV-C genotypes in co-infected women differed significantly by race/ethnicity. However, median CD4 cell counts and log10 HIV RNA levels did not differ by GBV-C genotype. GBV-C incidence was 2.7% over a median follow-up of 2.9 (IQR: 1.5, 4.9) years, while GBV-C clearance was 35.7% over a median follow-up of 2.44 (1.4, 3.5) years. 4 women switched genotypes. Conclusions Age, injection drug use, a history of sex for money or drugs, and number of recent male sex partners were associated with GBV-C infection among all women in this analysis. However, CD4 cell count and HIV viral load of HIV/HCV/GBV-C co-infected women were not different although race was associated with GBV-C genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason T. Blackard
- Division of Digestive Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Gang Ma
- Division of Digestive Diseases, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey A. Welge
- Departments of Psychiatry and Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States of America
| | - Caroline C. King
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Lynn E. Taylor
- Miriam Hospital and Department of Medicine, Brown University, Providence, RI, United States of America
| | - Kenneth H. Mayer
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and the Fenway Institute, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Robert S. Klein
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Mt. Sinai St. Luke’s and Mt. Sinai Roosevelt Hospitals, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - David D. Celentano
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Jack D. Sobel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, School of Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Denise J. Jamieson
- Division of Reproductive Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Lytt Gardner
- Division of HIV/AIDS Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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Prevalence of GB virus type C viraemia in MSM with or without HIV-1 infection in Beijing, China. Epidemiol Infect 2012; 140:2199-209. [PMID: 22444912 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268812000027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
GB virus C (GBV-C) is frequently identified in patients co-infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) due to the similar transmission routes. However, it remains unclear how these two viruses interact with each other and how one virus affects the replication of the other in the human body. In this study, we performed a case-control study to determine whether GBV-C viraemia could prevent the acquisition of HIV-1 infection, and a cohort study to determine the prevalence, genotypic characteristics and incidence of GBV-C infection in men who have sex with men (MSM) populations in Beijing, China. The prevalence of GBV-C infection in HIV-1-negative subjects was similar to that in HIV-1-positive subjects. Before HIV-1 acquisition, the prevalence of GBV-C was 17·7%, which increased to 27·2% at the acute stage and to 34% at the chronic stage. Genotype 3 was the major genotype of GBV-C in both groups. A significantly positive correlation was observed between the CD4+ T-cell counts and GBV-C viral loads at the acute stage of HIV infection. At the chronic stage (12 months later), this correlation was no longer significant, although it was still positive. Overall, this study demonstrated that pre-existing GBV-C viraemia could not prevent the acquisition of HIV-1 infection and transmission of HIV-1 significantly increased the prevalence of GBV-C viraemia.
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Bhanich Supapol W, Remis RS, Raboud J, Millson M, Tappero J, Kaul R, Kulkarni P, McConnell MS, Philip AM, McNicholl JM, Roongpisuthipong A, Chotpitayasunondh T, Shaffer N, Butera S. Prevalence and correlates of GB virus C infection in HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected pregnant women in Bangkok, Thailand. J Med Virol 2010; 83:33-44. [DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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Molla Hoseini MH, Pourfathollah AA, Mohraz M, Soheili Z, Amini S, Aghaiepour M, Samiee S, Nikoogoftar M, Meshkani R. Evaluation of Circulating Natural Type 1 Interferon-producing Cells in HIV/GBV-C and HIV/HCV Coinfected Patients: A Preliminary Study. Arch Med Res 2007; 38:868-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2007.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Accepted: 05/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Sheng WH, Hung CC, Wu RJ, Wang JT, Chen PJ, Chang SC, Kao JH. Clinical Impact of GB Virus C Viremia on Patients with HIV Type 1 Infection in the Era of Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44:584-90. [PMID: 17243064 DOI: 10.1086/511037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2006] [Accepted: 10/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The influence of GB virus C (GBV-C) viremia on clinical outcomes of patients with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection remains controversial in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). METHODS A prospective observational study was conducted to describe the epidemiology of GBV-C viremia and assess its clinical impact on treatment responses to HAART in 385 HIV-1-infected patients during the period from January 1999 through June 2004. RESULTS A total of 59 patients (15.3%) had detectable GBV-C RNA viremia during a median observation of 3.6 years (range, 1.0-7.0 years); 47 patients (12.2%) had GBV-C viremia at enrollment, and 12 (3.1%) acquired GBV-C infection during follow-up. Thirty-two (68.1%) of the 47 patients with baseline GBV-C viremia had persistent GBV-C viremia. Compared with patients with clearance of GBV-C viremia (n=15) and patients without detectable GBV-C viremia (n=326), patients with persistent GBV-C viremia were more likely to be men who have sex with men (81.3% vs. 60.4%; P=.02), tended to have lower baseline plasma HIV RNA load (HIV RNA load > or =5 log(10) copies/mL, 31.3% vs. 49.4%; P=.05), and had a higher proportion of isolated anti-hepatitis B core antibody (37.5% vs. 17.2%; P=.005). There was no statistically significant difference in terms of virologic, immunologic, and clinical responses to HAART; occurrence of hepatic events; and mortality among the 3 groups. CONCLUSIONS Persistent GBV-C viremia is significantly associated with male-male sex in HIV-infected patients with advanced immunodeficiency, and persistent GBV-C viremia does not confer short-term benefit in patients receiving HAART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang-Huei Sheng
- Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital and National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
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Berzsenyi MD, Bowden DS, Roberts SK. GB virus C: insights into co-infection. J Clin Virol 2005; 33:257-66. [PMID: 15922655 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2005.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2005] [Revised: 03/22/2005] [Accepted: 04/01/2005] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
GB virus C (GBV-C) is a single stranded positive sense RNA virus, which is a member of the Flaviviridae. It has a close sequence homology and genomic organisation to hepatitis C virus (HCV). However, unlike HCV it is not hepatotrophic. GBV-C replicates within cells of the haemopoietic lineage, in particular lymphocytes. No disease has been associated with GBV-C infection but co-infection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) leads to improved morbidity and mortality for the HIV infected individual and slows progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. This potential benefit of GBV-C has been demonstrated in the pre and post highly active anti-retroviral treatment (HAART) eras. GBV-C has been found to decrease HIV replication in in vitro models. The mechanism of the beneficial effect of GBV-C appears to be mediated by alterations in the cellular immune response, the details of which remain unclear. Despite this, there continues to be controversy regarding the influence of GBV-C on HIV as several reports have questioned the beneficial effect. GBV-C does not appear to influence liver related disease in subjects co-infected with HCV or hepatitis B virus (HBV). Combination of HIV and HCV leads to accelerated liver disease. The influence of GBV-C in this situation is yet to be determined. Elucidation of the putative protective effect of GBV-C in HIV co-infection could potentially identify novel targets for anti-HIV therapeutics and lead to the development of disease modifying vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D Berzsenyi
- Department of Gastroenterology, Alfred Hospital, Commercial Road, Prahran 3181, Victoria, Australia.
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