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Peggs KS, Albon SJ, Oporto Espuelas M, Irving C, Richardson R, Casanovas-Company J, Wallace R, Guvenel A, Ghorashian S, Collura A, Subramaniyam M, Flutter B, Popova B, Castro F, Lopes A, Champion K, Schofield O, Clifton-Hadley L, Taylor T, Farrell M, Adams S, Gilmour KC, Mackinnon S, Tholouli E, Amrolia PJ. Immunotherapy with CD25/CD71-allodepleted T cells to improve T-cell reconstitution after matched unrelated donor hematopoietic stem cell transplant: a randomized trial. Cytotherapy 2023; 25:82-93. [PMID: 36220712 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2022.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2022] [Revised: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AIMS Delayed immune reconstitution is a major challenge after matched unrelated donor (MUD) stem cell transplant (SCT). In this randomized phase 2 multi-center trial, Adoptive Immunotherapy with CD25/71 allodepleted donor T cells to improve immunity after unrelated donor stem cell transplant (NCT01827579), the authors tested whether allodepleted donor T cells (ADTs) can safely be used to improve immune reconstitution after alemtuzumab-based MUD SCT for hematological malignancies. METHODS Patients received standard of care or up to three escalating doses of ADTs generated through CD25+/CD71+ immunomagnetic depletion. The primary endpoint of the study was circulating CD3+ T-cell count at 4 months post-SCT. Twenty-one patients were treated, 13 in the ADT arm and eight in the control arm. RESULTS The authors observed a trend toward improved CD3+ T-cell count at 4 months in the ADT arm versus the control arm (230/µL versus 145/µL, P = 0.18), and three ADT patients achieved normal CD3+ T-cell count at 4 months (>700/µL). The rates of significant graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) were comparable in both cohorts, with grade ≥2 acute GVHD in seven of 13 and four of eight patients and chronic GVHD in three of 13 and three of eight patients in the ADT and control arms, respectively. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that adoptive transfer of ADTs is safe, but that in the MUD setting the benefit in terms of T-cell reconstitution is limited. This approach may be of more use in the context of more rigorous T-cell depletion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl S Peggs
- Department of Hematology, University College London Hospital, London, UK
| | - Sarah J Albon
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Macarena Oporto Espuelas
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK.
| | - Catherine Irving
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Rachel Richardson
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Joan Casanovas-Company
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Rebecca Wallace
- Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK; Molecular Hematology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Aleks Guvenel
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Sara Ghorashian
- Molecular Hematology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Department of Hematology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Angela Collura
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Meera Subramaniyam
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Barry Flutter
- Gene and Cell Therapy, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK; Molecular Hematology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK
| | - Bilyana Popova
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Fernanda Castro
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Andre Lopes
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Kim Champion
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Oliver Schofield
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Laura Clifton-Hadley
- Cancer Research UK and University College London Cancer Trials Center, London, UK
| | - Thomas Taylor
- Department of Hematology, University College London Hospital, London, UK
| | - Maria Farrell
- Department of Hematology, Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester, UK
| | - Stuart Adams
- Department of Hematology, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Kimberly C Gilmour
- Cell Therapy and Immunology, Camelia Botnar Laboratories, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK
| | - Stephen Mackinnon
- Department of Hematology, University College London Hospital, London, UK
| | - Eleni Tholouli
- Department of Hematology, Manchester Royal Infirmary, Manchester, UK
| | - Persis J Amrolia
- Molecular and Cellular Immunology Section, University College London Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London, UK; Department of Bone Marrow Transplantation, Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children, London, UK.
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Handgretinger R, Arendt AM, Maier CP, Lang P. Ex vivo and in vivo T-cell depletion in allogeneic transplantation: towards less or non-cytotoxic conditioning regimens. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2022; 18:1285-1296. [PMID: 36220154 DOI: 10.1080/1744666x.2022.2134857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Although tremendous progress has been made since the introduction of allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) decades ago, there are still many obstacles to overcome. A major obstacle is the presence of T-lymphocytes in the recipient and in the donor. Recipient-derived T-lymphocytes not eliminated by the conditioning regimen are a major barrier and can lead to mixed chimerism or to complete rejection of the graft. Donor-derived T-lymphocytes can induce severe acute and chronic Graft-versus-Host Disease (GvHD). AREAS COVERED Currently published strategies for in vivo depletion of recipient-derived T-lymphocytes are discussed including the increase of the intensity of the conditioning regimen, the addition of anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG) or the anti-CD52 monoclonal antibody Campath. For the depletion or tolerization of the donor-derived T-lymphocytes, ex vivo-T-cell depletion methods, such as positive selection of CD34+ stem cells, negative depletion of CD3+ or TcRαβ+ T-lymphocytes or the use of post-transplant cyclophosphamide (PTCy) have been developed. EXPERT COMMENTARY All these currently used approaches have their disadvantages and new approaches should be investigated. In this review, we discuss current and propose new possible strategies to overcome the HLA barrier by using more specific T-cell directed therapies and/or by the combinations of current methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupert Handgretinger
- Department of Hematology/Oncology. Children's University Hospital, University of Tuebingen, Germany.,Abu Dhabi Stem Cells Center, Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Anne-Marie Arendt
- Department of Hematology/Oncology. Children's University Hospital, University of Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Claus-Philipp Maier
- Department of Hematology/Oncology. Children's University Hospital, University of Tuebingen, Germany.,Department of Hematology, Oncology, Clinical Immunology and Rheumatology, Center for Internal Medicine, University Hospital Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Peter Lang
- Department of Hematology/Oncology. Children's University Hospital, University of Tuebingen, Germany
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Li Pira G, Di Cecca S, Montanari M, Moretta L, Manca F. Specific removal of alloreactive T-cells to prevent GvHD in hemopoietic stem cell transplantation: rationale, strategies and perspectives. Blood Rev 2016; 30:297-307. [PMID: 27066851 DOI: 10.1016/j.blre.2016.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 03/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Hemopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is a standard procedure for treatment of malignant and non-malignant hematological diseases. HSCT donors include HLA-identical siblings, matched or mismatched unrelated donors and haploidentical related donors. Graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), mediated by donor alloreactive T-cells in the graft, can be triggered by minor histocompatibility antigens in HLA-identical pairs, by alleles at loci not considered for MUD-matching or by the mismatched haplotype in haplo-HSCT. Therefore, removal of donor T-cells, that contain the alloreactive precursors, is required, but T-cell depletion associates with opportunistic infections and with reduced graft-versus-leukemia effect. Selective T-cell depletion strategies have been introduced, like removal of αβ T-lymphocytes and of naive T-cells, two subsets including the alloreactive precursors, but the ultimate goal is specific removal of alloreactive T-cells. Here we review the different approaches to deplete alloreactive T-cells only and discuss pros and cons, specificity, efficiency and efficacy. Combinations of different methods and innovative approaches are also proposed for depleting specific alloreactive T-cells with high efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppina Li Pira
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy; Unit of Immuno-hematology and Transfusion Medicine, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onoforio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Stefano Di Cecca
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Mauro Montanari
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onofrio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy; Unit of Immuno-hematology and Transfusion Medicine, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onoforio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Lorenzo Moretta
- Immunology Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onoforio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy.
| | - Fabrizio Manca
- Immunology Area, IRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's Hospital, Piazza S. Onoforio 4, 00165 Rome, Italy.
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Falagan-Lotsch P, Lopes TS, Ferreira N, Balthazar N, Monteiro AM, Borojevic R, Granjeiro JM. Performance of PCR-based and Bioluminescent assays for mycoplasma detection. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 118:31-6. [PMID: 26296900 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2015] [Accepted: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Contaminated eukaryotic cell cultures are frequently responsible for unreliable results. Regulatory entities request that cell cultures must be mycoplasma-free. Mycoplasma contamination remains a significant problem for cell cultures and may have an impact on biological analysis since they affect many cell parameters. The gold standard microbiological assay for mycoplasma detection involves laborious and time-consuming protocols. PCR-based and Bioluminescent assays have been considered for routine cell culture screening in research laboratories since they are fast, easy and sensitive. Thus, the aim of this work is to compare the performance of two popular commercial assays, PCR-based and Bioluminescent assays, by assessing the level of mycoplasma contamination in cell cultures from Rio de Janeiro Cell Bank (RJCB) and also from customers' laboratories. The results obtained by both performed assays were confirmed by scanning electron microscopy. In addition, we evaluated the limit of detection of the PCR kit under our laboratory conditions and the storage effects on mycoplasma detection in frozen cell culture supernatants. The performance of both assays for mycoplasma detection was not significantly different and they showed very good agreement. The Bioluminescent assay for mycoplasma detection was slightly more dependable than PCR-based due to the lack of inconclusive results produced by the first technique, especially considering the ability to detect mycoplasma contamination in frozen cell culture supernatants. However, cell lines should be precultured for four days or more without antibiotics to obtain safe results. On the other hand, a false negative result was obtained by using this biochemical approach. The implementation of fast and reliable mycoplasma testing methods is an important technical and regulatory issue and PCR-based and Bioluminescent assays may be good candidates. However, validation studies are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priscila Falagan-Lotsch
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Bioengineering Group, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - Talíria Silva Lopes
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Bioengineering Group, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - Nívea Ferreira
- Rio de Janeiro Cell Bank, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Brazil Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - Nathália Balthazar
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Bioengineering Group, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - Antônio M Monteiro
- Rio de Janeiro Cell Bank, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Brazil Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - Radovan Borojevic
- Rio de Janeiro Cell Bank, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Brazil Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
| | - José Mauro Granjeiro
- Laboratory of Biotechnology, Bioengineering Group, National Institute of Metrology, Quality and Technology (INMETRO), Av Nossa Senhora das Graças, n°50, Vila Operária-Xerém, Duque de Caxias, Rio de Janeiro CEP25250-020, Brazil.
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Tzannou I, Leen AM. Preventing stem cell transplantation-associated viral infections using T-cell therapy. Immunotherapy 2015; 7:793-810. [PMID: 26250410 DOI: 10.2217/imt.15.43] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is the treatment of choice for many hematologic malignancies and genetic diseases. However, viral infections continue to account for substantial post-transplant morbidity and mortality. While antiviral drugs are available against some viruses, they are associated with significant side effects and are frequently ineffective. This review focuses on the immunotherapeutic strategies that have been used to prevent and treat infections over the past 20 years and outlines different refinements that have been introduced with the goal of moving this therapy beyond specialized academic centers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ifigeneia Tzannou
- Center for Cell & Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital & Texas Children's Hospital, 1102 Bates Street, Suite 1770, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Ann M Leen
- Center for Cell & Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital & Texas Children's Hospital, 1102 Bates Street, Suite 1770, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Abstract
Serious viral infections are a common cause of morbidity and mortality after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. They occur in the majority of allograft recipients and are fatal in 17–20%. These severe infections may be prolonged or recurrent and add substantially to the cost, both human and financial, of the procedure. Many features of allogeneic stem cell transplantation contribute to this high rate of viral disease. The cytotoxic and immunosuppressive drugs administered pretransplant to eliminate the host hematopoietic/immune system and any associated malignancy, the delay in recapitulating immune ontogeny post‐transplant, the immunosuppressive drugs given to prevent graft versus host disease (GvHD), and the effects of GvHD itself, all serve to make stem cell transplant recipients vulnerable to disease from endogenous (latent) and exogenous (community) viruses, and to be incapable of controlling them as quickly and effectively as most normal individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Leen
- Center for Cell and Gene Therapy, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital and Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX, USA
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Liu A, Hu J, Wu W, Huang Y, Liang H, Wang H, Yang R, Fan J. Preliminary exploration of HLA-A 1101-restricted human cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B-specific CD8⁺ T cells in allogeneic stem-cell transplant recipients. Virus Res 2014; 188:38-44. [PMID: 24704672 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2014.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 03/16/2014] [Accepted: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
T-cell responses directed against human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) glycoprotein B (gB) contribute to protective immunity against HCMV infection in both animal models and humans. However, the gB-specific human CD8(+) T cell responses remain poorly understood. gB antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells were stained with seven major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-peptide pentamers in 16 human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A 1101-positive, HCMV-seropositive patients following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). Of these seven pentamers, the most frequent CD8(+) T-cell responses were directed against the gB332-340 peptide. These gB332-340-specific CD8(+) T cells were strongly associated with the presence of plasma HCMV immunoglobulin M in all HSCT recipients and exhibited a probable causal relationship with the level of pp65 antigenemia. Together, these data suggest a role for gB332-340-specific CD8(+) T cells in HCMV reactivation after HSCT. Furthermore, the pentamer assay may be valuable in detecting antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anbing Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Jianhua Hu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Wei Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Yaping Huang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Hanying Liang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Huiqi Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Rong Yang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Jun Fan
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, 79 Qingchun Road, Hangzhou 310003, China.
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Gene and cell therapy for children--new medicines, new challenges? Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2014; 73:162-9. [PMID: 24583376 PMCID: PMC4074676 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The range of possible gene and cell therapy applications is expanding at an extremely rapid rate and advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs) are currently the hottest topic in novel medicines, particularly for inherited diseases. Paediatric patients stand to gain enormously from these novel therapies as it now seems plausible to develop a gene or cell therapy for a vast number of inherited diseases. There are a wide variety of potential gene and cell therapies in various stages of development. Patients who received first gene therapy treatments for primary immune deficiencies (PIDs) are reaching 10 and 15 years post-treatment, with robust and sustained immune recovery. Cell therapy clinical trials are underway for a variety of tissues including corneal, retinal and muscle repair and islet cell transplantation. Various cell therapy approaches are also being trialled to enhance the safety of bone marrow transplants, which should improve survival rates in childhood cancers and PIDs. Progress in genetic engineering of lymphocyte populations to target and kill cancerous cells is also described. If successful these ATMPs may enhance or replace the existing chemo-ablative therapy for several paediatric cancers. Emerging applications of gene therapy now include skin and neurological disorders such as epidermolysis bullosa, epilepsy and leukodystrophy. Gene therapy trials for haemophilia, muscular dystrophy and a range of metabolic disorders are underway. There is a vast array of potential advanced therapy medicinal products (ATMPs), and these are likely to be more cost effective than existing medicines. However, the first clinical trials have not been without setbacks and some of the key adverse events are discussed. Furthermore, the arrival of this novel class of therapies brings many new challenges for the healthcare industry. We present a summary of the key non-clinical factors required for successful delivery of these potential treatments. Technological advances are needed in vector design, raw material manufacture, cell culture and transduction methodology, and particularly in making all these technologies readily scalable.
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Accelerating immune reconstitution after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Clin Transl Immunology 2014; 3:e11. [PMID: 25505959 PMCID: PMC4232061 DOI: 10.1038/cti.2014.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Viral infections remain a significant cause of morbidity and mortality after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Pharmacologic agents are effective against some pathogens, but they are costly and can be associated with significant toxicities. Thus, many groups have investigated adoptive T-cell transfer as a means of hastening immune reconstitution and preventing and treating viral infections. This review discusses the immunotherapeutic strategies that have been explored.
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