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Gujarathi PP, Korat RH, Gujarathi PS. Preclinical techniques for drug discovery in psoriasis. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 137:112378. [PMID: 38852518 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2024.112378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a chronic, inflammatory, papulosquamous, noncontagious disease characterized by scaly, demarcated erythematous plaque, affecting skin, nails, and scalp. The IL-23/Th17 axis is the main operator in the development of psoriasis. Psoriasis is affecting worldwide, and new treatment options are urgently needed. Various local and systemic treatments are available for psoriasis but they only provide symptomatic relief because of numerous unknown mechanisms. Clinical trials demand overwhelming resources; therefore, drug development predominantly depends on the in-vivo, in-vitro, and ex-vivo techniques. Immediate attention is required to develop experimental techniques that completely imitate human psoriasis to assist drug development. This review portrays the various in-vivo, in-vitro, and ex-vivo techniques used in psoriasis research. It describes these techniques' characteristics, pathological presentations, and mechanisms. The experimental techniques of psoriasis provide significant information on disease progression mechanisms and possible therapeutic targets. However, until now, it has been challenging to invent a timely, affordable model that precisely imitates a human disease. Only the xenotransplantation model is reckoned as the closer, that mimics the complete genetic, and immunopathogenic event. Imiquimod-induced psoriasis and HaCat cell lines are popular among researchers because of their convenience, ease of use, and cost-effectiveness. There need to further improve the experimental techniques to best serve the disease imitation and meet the research goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranjal P Gujarathi
- Department of Pharmacology, Vidhyadeep Institute of Pharmacy, Vidhyadeep University, Anita, Surat, Gujarat, India; Bhagwan Mahavir Centre for Advance Research, Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Bhagwan Mahavir University, Vesu, Surat, Gujarat, India.
| | - Rashmi H Korat
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Bhagwan Mahavir College of Pharmacy, Bhagwan Mahavir Univeristy, Vesu, Surat, Gujarat, India
| | - Piyush S Gujarathi
- Department of Community Medicine, Vidhyadeep Homeopathic Medical College and Research Centre, Vidhyadeep University, Anita, Surat, Gujarat, India
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2
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Shen Z, Jiang J, Zhou X, Tan Q, Yan S, Wu X, Pi J, Wang H, Yang H, Luo X. Melatonin Attenuates Imiquimod-Induced Psoriasis-Like Inflammation and Restores the Th17/Treg Immune Balance. Inflammation 2024:10.1007/s10753-024-02023-4. [PMID: 38653920 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-024-02023-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Psoriasis is a common immune-mediated skin disease characterized by abnormally reactive inflammation and epidermal hyperplasia. Previous studies have shown melatonin (MLT) has powerful anti-inflammatory effects. The mechanisms that MLT regulates psoriasis-associated skin inflammation remain unclear. Here, in imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like mice, MLT supplementation reduced skin inflammation and corrected the Th17/Treg cell imbalance. Network pharmacology and proteome sequencing analyses revealed that MLT attenuates the inflammatory response in the skin of psoriatic mice by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. Overall, the data suggest that MLT has a protective effect against psoriasis-like inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanting Shen
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Jinqiu Jiang
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaoying Zhou
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Qingqing Tan
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Shi Yan
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuege Wu
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Jiangshan Pi
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Hua Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Huan Yang
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China
| | - Xiaoyan Luo
- Department of Dermatology, Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Child Health and Disorders, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Child Development and Disorders, 136 Zhongshan 2nd Road, Yuzhong District, 400014, Chongqing, China.
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Child Infection and Immunity, Chongqing, China.
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Galvan A, Pellicciari C, Calderan L. Recreating Human Skin In Vitro: Should the Microbiota Be Taken into Account? Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:1165. [PMID: 38256238 PMCID: PMC10816982 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25021165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Skin plays crucial roles in the human body: besides protecting the organism from external threats, it acts as a thermal regulator, is responsible for the sense of touch, hosts microbial communities (the skin microbiota) involved in preventing the invasion of foreign pathogens, contains immunocompetent cells that maintain a healthy immunogenic/tolerogenic balance, and is a suitable route for drug administration. In the skin, four defense levels can be identified: besides the physical, chemical, and immune barriers that are inherent to the tissue, the skin microbiota (i.e., the numerous microorganisms living on the skin surface) provides an additional barrier. Studying the skin barrier function or the effects of drugs or cosmetic agents on human skin is a difficult task since snapshot evidence can only be obtained using bioptic samples where dynamic processes cannot properly be followed. To overcome these limitations, many different in vitro models of human skin have been developed that are characterized by diverse levels of complexity in terms of chemical, structural, and cellular composition. The aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different human skin models so far available and to underline how the insertion of a proper microbiota would positively impact an in vitro human skin model in an attempt to better mimic conditions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Galvan
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (A.G.); (L.C.)
| | - Carlo Pellicciari
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Pavia, Via A. Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy
| | - Laura Calderan
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, 37134 Verona, Italy; (A.G.); (L.C.)
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Luengas‐Martinez A, Ismail D, Paus R, Young HS. Inhibition of vascular endothelial growth factor-A downregulates angiogenesis in psoriasis: A pilot study. SKIN HEALTH AND DISEASE 2023; 3:e245. [PMID: 37799359 PMCID: PMC10549813 DOI: 10.1002/ski2.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Background Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF)-A-mediated angiogenesis participates in the pathogenesis of psoriasis, thus inviting the hypothesis that anti-VEGF-A therapy could be beneficial in psoriasis. While anti-angiogenic agents are used in oncology and ophthalmology, these therapeutic strategies remain unexplored for the management of psoriasis. Objective Our objective was to investigate ex vivo how VEGF-A blockade impacts blood vessels, epidermis and immune cells in organ-cultured plaque and non-lesional skin from patients with psoriasis. Methods Skin biopsies from patients with psoriasis (n = 6; plaque and non-lesional skin) and healthy controls (n = 6) were incubated with anti-VEGF-A monoclonal antibody (bevacizumab, Avastin®) or a human IgG1 isotype control for 72-h in serum-free organ culture. CD31/LYVE-1, Ki-67, and mast cell tryptase expression were assessed by quantitative immunohistomorphometry. VEGF-A levels in plasma, PBMCs and skin culture supernatants were measured. Results Inhibition of VEGF-A blocked all free VEGF-A ex vivo, reduced blood vessel area and the number of blood vessel endothelial cells in plaques of psoriasis (*p < 0.05). The treatment effect correlated significantly with levels of VEGF-A in organ culture supernatants (r = 0.94; *p < 0.05) from plaque skin and with plasma levels of VEGF-A from patients with psoriasis (r = 0.943; *p = 0.017). Conclusions These ex vivo data are the first studies to objectively investigate the potential of VEGF-A inhibition as a novel adjuvant treatment strategy for psoriasis. Taken together, our data encourage further investigation by clinical trial to explore whether downregulating pathological angiogenesis has clinical utility, especially in patients with severe psoriasis or those with elevated levels of VEGF-A in plasma and/or skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Luengas‐Martinez
- Centre for Dermatology Research and Manchester Academic Health Science CentreThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
| | - Dina Ismail
- Centre for Dermatology Research and Manchester Academic Health Science CentreThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
| | - Ralf Paus
- Centre for Dermatology Research and Manchester Academic Health Science CentreThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
- Dr. Philip Frost Department of Dermatology and Cutaneous SurgeryUniversity of Miami Miller School of MedicineMiamiFloridaUSA
- Monasterium LaboratoryMuensterGermany
- CUTANEONHamburgGermany
| | - Helen S. Young
- Centre for Dermatology Research and Manchester Academic Health Science CentreThe University of ManchesterManchesterUK
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Christensen PKF, Hansen AK, Skov S, Larsen J, Høyer-Hansen MH, Koch J. Effect of Systemic Administration of CD4 + T cells and Local Administration of T-cell Stimulants on T-cell Activity in Psoriatic Skin Xenografts on NOG Mice. Comp Med 2023; 73:285-293. [PMID: 37625901 PMCID: PMC10702288 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-cm-23-000006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Immunodeficient mice engrafted with psoriatic human skin are widely used for the preclinical evaluation of new drug candidates. However, the T-cell activity, including the IL23/IL17 pathway, declines in the graft over time after engraftment, which likely affects the study data. Here, we investigated whether the T-cell activity could be sustained in xenografted psoriatic skin by local stimulation of T cells or systemic injection of autologous CD4 + T cells. We surgically transplanted human psoriatic skin from 5 untreated patients onto female NOG mice. Six days after surgery, mice received an intraperitoneal injection of autologous human CD4+ T cells, a subcutaneous injection under the grafts of a T-cell stimulation cocktail consisting of recombinant human IL2, human IL23, antihuman CD3, and antihuman CD28, or saline. Mice were euthanized 21 d after surgery and spleens and graft biopsies were collected for analysis. Human T cells were present in the grafts, and 60% of the grafts maintained the psoriatic phenotype. However, neither local T-cell stimulation nor systemic injection of autologous CD4+ T cells affected the protein levels of human IL17A, IL22, IFN γ, and TNF α in the grafts. In conclusion, NOG mice seem to accept psoriatic skin grafts, but the 2 approaches studied here did not affect human T-cell activity in the grafts. Therefore, NOG mice do not appear in this regard to be superior to other immunodeficient mice used for psoriasis xenografts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pernille KF Christensen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- LEO Pharma, Ballerup, Denmark; and
| | - Axel K Hansen
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren Skov
- Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Radulska A, Pelikant-Małecka I, Jendernalik K, Dobrucki IT, Kalinowski L. Proteomic and Metabolomic Changes in Psoriasis Preclinical and Clinical Aspects. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24119507. [PMID: 37298466 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24119507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin diseases such as psoriasis (Ps) and psoriatic arthritis (PsA) are immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Overlap of autoinflammatory and autoimmune conditions hinders diagnoses and identifying personalized patient treatments due to different psoriasis subtypes and the lack of verified biomarkers. Recently, proteomics and metabolomics have been intensively investigated in a broad range of skin diseases with the main purpose of identifying proteins and small molecules involved in the pathogenesis and development of the disease. This review discusses proteomics and metabolomics strategies and their utility in research and clinical practice in psoriasis and psoriasis arthritis. We summarize the studies, from in vivo models conducted on animals through academic research to clinical trials, and highlight their contribution to the discovery of biomarkers and targets for biological drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrianna Radulska
- Department of Medical Laboratory Diagnostics-Fahrenheit Biobank BBMRI.pl, Medical University of Gdansk, 7 Debinki Street, 80-211 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Iwona Pelikant-Małecka
- Department of Medical Laboratory Diagnostics-Fahrenheit Biobank BBMRI.pl, Medical University of Gdansk, 7 Debinki Street, 80-211 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Kamila Jendernalik
- Department of Medical Laboratory Diagnostics-Fahrenheit Biobank BBMRI.pl, Medical University of Gdansk, 7 Debinki Street, 80-211 Gdansk, Poland
| | - Iwona T Dobrucki
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 405N Mathews Ave., MC-251, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carle-Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Leszek Kalinowski
- Department of Medical Laboratory Diagnostics-Fahrenheit Biobank BBMRI.pl, Medical University of Gdansk, 7 Debinki Street, 80-211 Gdansk, Poland
- BioTechMed Centre/Department of Mechanics of Materials and Structures, Gdansk University of Technology, 11/12 Narutowicza Street, 80-233 Gdansk, Poland
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Yadav K, Singh D, Singh MR, Minz S, Princely Ebenezer Gnanakani S, Sucheta, Yadav R, Vora L, Sahu KK, Bagchi A, Singh Chauhan N, Pradhan M. Preclinical study models of psoriasis: State-of-the-art techniques for testing pharmaceutical products in animal and nonanimal models. Int Immunopharmacol 2023; 117:109945. [PMID: 36871534 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.109945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Revised: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Local and systemic treatments exist for psoriasis, but none can do more than control its symptoms because of its numerous unknown mechanisms. The lack of validated testing models or a defined psoriatic phenotypic profile hinders antipsoriatic drug development. Despite their intricacy, immune-mediated diseases have no improved and precise treatment. The treatment actions may now be predicted for psoriasis and other chronic hyperproliferative skin illnesses using animal models. Their findings confirmed that a psoriasis animal model could mimic a few disease conditions. However, their ethical approval concerns and inability to resemble human psoriasis rightly offer to look for more alternatives. Hence, in this article, we have reported various cutting-edge techniques for the preclinical testing of pharmaceutical products for the treatment of psoriasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Yadav
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492010, India; Raipur Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sarona, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492010, India
| | - Deependra Singh
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492010, India
| | - Manju Rawat Singh
- University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh 492010, India
| | - Sunita Minz
- Department of Pharmacy, Indira Gandhi National Tribal University, Amarkantak, India
| | | | - Sucheta
- School of Medical and Allied Sciences, K. R. Mangalam University, Gurugram, Haryana 122103, India
| | - Renu Yadav
- School of Medical and Allied Sciences, K. R. Mangalam University, Gurugram, Haryana 122103, India
| | - Lalitkumar Vora
- School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, 97 Lisburn Road, BT9 7BL, UK
| | - Kantrol Kumar Sahu
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Research, GLA University, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh 281406, India
| | - Anindya Bagchi
- Tumor Initiation & Maintenance Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, 10901 North Torrey Pines Road La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Nagendra Singh Chauhan
- Drugs Testing Laboratory Avam Anusandhan Kendra (AYUSH), Government Ayurvedic College, Raipur, India
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Carlos ECDS, Cristovão GA, Silva AA, Ribeiro BCDS, Romana‐Souza B. Imiquimod‐induced
ex vivo
model of psoriatic human skin via
interleukin‐17A
signaling of T cells and Langerhans cells. Exp Dermatol 2022; 31:1791-1799. [DOI: 10.1111/exd.14659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alcimar Alves Silva
- Department of Histology and Embryology Rio de Janeiro State University Rio de Janeiro Brazil
| | | | - Bruna Romana‐Souza
- Department of Histology and Embryology Rio de Janeiro State University Rio de Janeiro Brazil
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Linares-Gonzalez L, Rodenas-Herranz T, Campos F, Ruiz-Villaverde R, Carriel V. Basic Quality Controls Used in Skin Tissue Engineering. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:1033. [PMID: 34685402 PMCID: PMC8541591 DOI: 10.3390/life11101033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 09/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Reconstruction of skin defects is often a challenging effort due to the currently limited reconstructive options. In this sense, tissue engineering has emerged as a possible alternative to replace or repair diseased or damaged tissues from the patient's own cells. A substantial number of tissue-engineered skin substitutes (TESSs) have been conceived and evaluated in vitro and in vivo showing promising results in the preclinical stage. However, only a few constructs have been used in the clinic. The lack of standardization in evaluation methods employed may in part be responsible for this discrepancy. This review covers the most well-known and up-to-date methods for evaluating the optimization of new TESSs and orientative guidelines for the evaluation of TESSs are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Linares-Gonzalez
- Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario San Cecilio, 18016 Granada, Spain; (L.L.-G.); (T.R.-H.)
- Ibs. GRANADA, Instituto Biosanitario de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (F.C.); (V.C.)
- Department of Histology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Teresa Rodenas-Herranz
- Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario San Cecilio, 18016 Granada, Spain; (L.L.-G.); (T.R.-H.)
- Ibs. GRANADA, Instituto Biosanitario de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (F.C.); (V.C.)
- Department of Histology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Fernando Campos
- Ibs. GRANADA, Instituto Biosanitario de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (F.C.); (V.C.)
- Department of Histology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Ricardo Ruiz-Villaverde
- Servicio de Dermatología, Hospital Universitario San Cecilio, 18016 Granada, Spain; (L.L.-G.); (T.R.-H.)
- Ibs. GRANADA, Instituto Biosanitario de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (F.C.); (V.C.)
- Department of Histology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
| | - Víctor Carriel
- Ibs. GRANADA, Instituto Biosanitario de Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain; (F.C.); (V.C.)
- Department of Histology, University of Granada, 18016 Granada, Spain
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