Theory of mind in emerging reading comprehension: A longitudinal study of early indirect and direct effects

The effect of reading literary fiction on the theory of mind skills among persons with schizophrenia and normal controls

Introduction

Recent research data suggest that theory of mind (ToM) skills may improve after reading literary fiction. However, beside this short term favorable effect, regular long-term reading of literary fiction may also support ToM development or may improve ToM performance. The presence of impaired ToM abilities is well-documented in schizophrenia; however, the role of reading in these deficits is unknown. In the present study our aim was to assess the effect of prior reading experiences on theory of mind performance in patients with schizophrenia, and in healthy controls.

Materials and methods

ToM assessment was done with the Short Story Task, which is based on the interpretation of a Hemingway short story. After reading the short story, questions were asked in an interview format regarding comprehension, explicit and implicit ToM skills, then comparative analysis of schizophrenia patients was performed (n = 47) and matched to a normal control (n = 48) group concerning deficits of ToM abilities. Participants were also stratified according to their prior reading experiences.

Results

Previous reading experience was associated with better comprehension and explicit ToM performance both in patients with schizophrenia, and in healthy controls. However, the explicit ToM performance of patients with prior reading was still weaker compared to healthy controls with reading experiences. Path model analysis revealed that reading had a direct positive effect on ToM, and an indirect effect through improving comprehension.

Conclusions

Prior reading experience is associated with better ToM performance not just in healthy controls but also in patients living with schizophrenia. Previous reading experience also improves comprehension, which in turn has a favorable impact on ToM. Our results support the idea that literary fiction reading may have a therapeutic potential in the rehabilitation of schizophrenia.

Linking fine motor skills with theory of mind in school-age children

Motor skills have been linked to language and social development with implications for theory of mind. This study examined theory of mind (attribution of intentions task) in school-age children ( N = 62, mean age 8 years; 2 months, standard deviation [ SD] = 1;3) in relation to fine motor skills (grooved pegboard), receptive vocabulary (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test), receptive grammar (Test for the Reception of Grammar), reading comprehension (Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests), verbal short-term (nonword repetition), and visual-spatial working memory (one-shape array memory). All variables except verbal short-term memory correlated with accuracy on theory of mind. In regression models, fine motor skills accounted for variance in theory of mind after controlling for age, language, and working memory. The results add to research linking fine motor skills with faux pas understanding, indicating the potentially broad impact of motor skills on social cognition. Given the cross-sectional study design, longitudinal research is warranted to address causality.

Just listen to your mind: Consequences of theory of mind development for deaf or hard-of-hearing children

BACKGROUND

Previous research reveals relations between theory of mind (ToM) and cognitive outcomes, but mostly among typically developing children.

AIM

To study these relations in children with developmental difficulties, this longitudinal study investigated the cognitive consequences of ToM in deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) children.

METHODS AND PROCEDURES

One hundred and thirty-four (X = 9.2 years) participants were assessed in three waves, i.e., one wave every ten months. The participants completed the ToM scale, language and literacy skills (LLS) tests, the academic self-concept in language (ASC-L) questionnaire, and the sensitivity to criticism measure.

OUTCOMES AND RESULTS

The results revealed that high levels of children's ToM ability predicted higher levels of LLS 20 months later. Mediators of this association were sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L. Controlling for LLS at T1, ASC-L at T2 mediated the relations between ToM and LLS at T3. Moreover, sensitivity to criticism predicted ASC-L, and sensitivity to criticism and ASC-L mediated the relation between ToM and LLS at T3. That is, children who were sensitive to criticism and held positive views of their academic self were also better skilled in ToM and in LLS.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Our results can help improve the education of DHH students.

Reading Minds, Reading Stories: Social-Cognitive Abilities Affect the Linguistic Processing of Narrative Viewpoint

Although various studies have shown that narrative reading draws on social-cognitive abilities, not much is known about the precise aspects of narrative processing that engage these abilities. We hypothesized that the linguistic processing of narrative viewpoint—expressed by elements that provide access to the inner world of characters—might play an important role in engaging social-cognitive abilities. Using eye tracking, we studied the effect of lexical markers of perceptual, cognitive, and emotional viewpoint on eye movements during reading of a 5,000-word narrative. Next, we investigated how this relationship was modulated by individual differences in social-cognitive abilities. Our results show diverging patterns of eye movements for perceptual viewpoint markers on the one hand, and cognitive and emotional viewpoint markers on the other. Whereas the former are processed relatively fast compared to non-viewpoint markers, the latter are processed relatively slow. Moreover, we found that social-cognitive abilities impacted the processing of words in general, and of perceptual and cognitive viewpoint markers in particular, such that both perspective-taking abilities and self-reported perspective-taking traits facilitated the processing of these markers. All in all, our study extends earlier findings that social cognition is of importance for story reading, showing that individual differences in social-cognitive abilities are related to the linguistic processing of narrative viewpoint.

Does Perspective Taking Matter for Writing? Perspective Taking in Source-Based Analytical Writing of Secondary Students

Perspective taking, one's knowledge of their own mental and emotional states and inferences about others' mental and emotional states, is an important skill for writing development. In the present study, we examined how perspective taking is expressed in writing and how it is related to overall writing quality. We analyzed seventh graders' source-based analytical essays (N = 195) to investigate (1) the extent to which students incorporated perspective taking in their essays, (2) how the extent of perspective taking in essays differ by students' sex and English learner status, and (3) the extent to which perspective taking in writing is associated with overall writing quality. Findings revealed that students wrote more from their own perspective than that of others. Moreover, the results of multi-level analyses suggested that female students exhibited more varied perspectives but there was no meaningful difference by English learner status. Lastly, greater extent of perspective taking, particularly that of higher level of perspectives (i.e., dual perspective), was associated with better writing quality, after accounting for students' demographic backgrounds (e.g., sex, poverty status, English learner status) and essay length. These results underscore the importance of writing from multiple perspectives on writing quality.

Theory of mind, mental state talk, and discourse comprehension: Theory of mind process is more important for narrative comprehension than for informational text comprehension

We investigated the relations among theory of mind (ToM), mental state talk, and discourse comprehension. Specifically, we examined the frequency of mental state talk in children's oral recall of narrative texts and informational texts as well as relations among ToM, mental state talk (inclusion of mental state words in the recall of narrative and informational texts), and narrative and informational text comprehension. Results from children in Grade 4 (N = 132; M_age = 10.39 years) revealed that a greater number of mental state talk instances appeared in children's recall of narrative texts than in their recall of informational texts, but the mean number also differed across texts within a genre. ToM skill predicted the extent of mental state talk in narrative texts and informational texts, and the relation was stronger for narrative texts than for informational texts, after accounting for vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, working memory, and attentional control. Mental state talk in narrative texts was extremely strongly related to narrative comprehension, whereas mental state talk in informational texts was weakly related to informational text comprehension. Results suggest that ToM skill relates to mental state talk in the recall of texts, and both ToM and mental state talk play greater roles in comprehension of narrative texts than in comprehension of informational texts.

Building Comprehension Skills of Young Children With Autism One Storybook at a Time

Purpose Reading involves the ability to decode and draw meaning from printed text. Reading skill profiles vary widely among learners with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). One fairly common pattern is relative strength in decoding combined with weak comprehension skills-indicators of this profile emerge as early as the preschool years. In order for children with ASD to develop a facility with language that prepares them for reading success, practitioners must intentionally create and provide appropriate instruction practices. Method In this tutorial, we describe ways in which practitioners can support language development and comprehension skills for children with ASD within the context of shared reading activities. We begin by providing known information about the reading performance of children with ASD using the Simple View of Reading as our guiding conceptual framework. Next, we present a number of practical, evidence-based strategies that educators can implement within the context of shared book reading activities. Case studies are embedded throughout the tutorial to demonstrate how practitioners may apply these strategies in their instructional settings. Conclusions Shared book reading interventions are a well-studied, developmentally appropriate approach for bringing about change in language and literacy in early childhood. The success of shared reading depends upon rich communication and interaction between the adult reader and the child. Many children with ASD will require strategies to support social communication and emergent literacy skill development (e.g., vocabulary knowledge, language comprehension) that are specifically linked to future reading comprehension.

Reading Comprehension in School-Age Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder: Examining the Many Components That May Contribute

Purpose

Reading comprehension is consistently poor in many school-age children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The purpose of this tutorial is to provide an overview from a multicomponent view on the many predictors that may contribute to reading comprehension difficulties in ASD.

Method

This tutorial reviews current literature on profiles and predictors of reading comprehension in ASD. The review is situated from a multicomponent theoretical view based on the “direct and indirect effects of reading” model that builds on the familiar “simple view of reading.” Each component, including word reading, listening comprehension, morphosyntax, vocabulary, working memory, comprehension monitoring, inferencing, and theory of mind, is separately reviewed, with consideration of the current evidence for their contribution to reading comprehension in ASD. At the end of each section, key takeaways are provided. To conclude, a summary with general clinical implications, case examples, and recommendations for future research across all components is offered.

Conclusions

Reading comprehension in ASD may be affected by any one or several components in any given individual. Speech-language pathologists have expertise and play a critical role in assessing and intervening on these components. The age and language status (language impaired or not) of a child are emerging as important factors for what to assess and consider for intervention. However, more research is needed that intentionally examines language status, evaluates reading comprehension at targeted ages or narrower age ranges, and/or examines language and reading development longitudinally.

The continuous impact of cognitive flexibility on the development of emotion understanding in children aged 4 and 5 years: A longitudinal study

The current study investigated the impact of cognitive flexibility on the development of emotion understanding using a longitudinal tracking study. A total of 98 children aged 4 and 5 years were tested for cognitive flexibility, emotion understanding, and verbal ability across three time points within a year. The cross-lagged analyses indicated that early cognitive flexibility played a predictive role in the development of emotion understanding. More precisely, cognitive flexibility at Time 1 predicted emotion understanding at Time 2 and Time 3, and cognitive flexibility at Time 2 predicted emotion understanding at Time 3. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that verbal ability mediated the impact of cognitive flexibility on emotion understanding. Early cognitive flexibility contributed to later emotion understanding by improving children's verbal ability. These findings suggest that there is a verbal ability-mediated pathway from cognitive flexibility to emotion understanding that provides a new perspective for the development mechanism of children's emotion understanding.

Early Emotion Knowledge and Later Academic Achievement Among Children of Color in Historically Disinvested Neighborhoods

This study examined longitudinal relations between emotion knowledge (EK) in pre-kindergarten (pre-K; M_age  = 4.8 years) and math and reading achievement 1 and 3 years later in a sample of 1,050 primarily Black children (over half from immigrant families) living in historically disinvested neighborhoods. Participants were part of a follow-up study of a cluster randomized controlled trial. Controlling for pre-academic skills, other social-emotional skills, sociodemographic characteristics, and school intervention status, higher EK at the end of pre-K predicted higher math and reading achievement test scores in kindergarten and second grade. Moderation analyses suggest that relations were attenuated among children from immigrant families. Findings suggest the importance of enriching pre-K programs for children of color with EK-promotive interventions and strategies.

Theory of mind goes to school: Does educational environment influence the development of theory of mind in middle childhood?

Previous research has shown that the development of theory of mind (ToM) depends on various individual and social factors, but very little research has examined the role of the natural educational environment in the development of ToM in middle childhood.

In accordance with the importance of social factors in development, in this longitudinal study of 156 typically developing children, we investigated whether educational setting—classes containing children with disabilities (inclusive) or without such children (general education)—is associated with enhanced ToM development. ToM was measured with the ToM Scale, the Chocolate task and the Faux Pas Recognition Test. Analysis showed that ToM development was better among children educated in inclusive classes than among those educated in traditional classes. The results have implications for ToM development among children with and without disabilities as well as for educational practice.

Early Language Competencies and Advanced Measures of Mental State Understanding Are Differently Related to Listening and Reading Comprehension in Early Adolescence

The present study tests a section of the DIET (direct and indirect effects model of text comprehension; Kim, 2017) model and focuses on the relations between early language skills, various facets of mental state understanding, and text comprehension. In a sample of 267 children, I analyzed the relations between language skills (vocabulary, sentence comprehension) at age 3;6, theory of mind (ToM) at age 5;6, mental state language and metacognitive knowledge at age 9;2, and children's listening and reading comprehension of texts at age 13;7 years. For reading comprehension, results favored a total mediation model that included only direct links from metacognitive knowledge and mental state language to reading comprehension. For listening comprehension, by contrast, a model that also included direct relations from language and ToM in preschool was favored. Metacognitive skills did not mediate the relation between early skills and later text comprehension but, along with mental state language, showed direct relations with reading comprehension beyond listening comprehension. Early language skills showed various indirect relations with later reading comprehension via ToM, mental state language, and listening comprehension, whereas ToM showed only small indirect relations with later reading comprehension via later listening comprehension. These different relations of the various components with later listening in contrast to reading comprehension are discussed.

The Lens Shapes the View: on Task Dependency in ToM Research

Purpose of Review

This article provides an overview of current findings on Theory of Mind (ToM) in human children and adults and highlights the relationship between task specifications and their outcome in socio-cognitive research.

Recent Findings

ToM, the capacity to reason about and infer others’ mental states, develops progressively throughout childhood—the exact time course is still a matter of debate. Neuroimaging studies indicate the involvement of a widespread neuronal network during mentalizing, suggesting that ToM is a multifaceted process. Accordingly, the tasks and trainings that currently exist to investigate and enhance ToM are heterogeneous, and the outcomes largely depend on the paradigm that was used.

Summary

We argue for the implementation of multiple-task batteries in the assessment of socio-cognitive abilities. Decisions for a particular paradigm need to be carefully considered and justified. We want to emphasize the importance of targeted research on the relationship between task specifications and outcomes.

Reading and Theory of Mind in Adolescents with Cochlear Implant

Previous research has shown a possible link between reading comprehension and theory of mind (ToM), but these findings are unclear in adolescents with cochlear implants (CI). In the present study, reading comprehension and ToM were assessed in adolescents with CI and the relation between both skills was also studied. Two sessions were performed on two groups of adolescents aged between 12 and 16 years of age (36 adolescents with CI and 54 participants with typical hearing, TH). They were evaluated by means of a standardized reading battery, a false belief task, and Faux Pas stories. The results indicated that reading and cognitive ToM were more developed in the TH group than in adolescents with CI. However, early-CI and binaural group performance were close to the TH group in narrative and expository comprehension and cognitive ToM. The results also indicated that cognitive ToM and reading comprehension appear to be related in deaf adolescents.

Theory of mind mediates the relations of language and domain-general cognitions to discourse comprehension

Theory of mind has received intensive attention in research as an important skill to develop. Furthermore, recent evidence indicates its role in discourse comprehension. In the current study, we examined the mediating role of theory of mind in the relations of foundational language and cognitive skills (working memory, attentional control, vocabulary, and grammatical knowledge) to discourse comprehension using the direct and indirect effects model of text comprehension and production (Kim, 2016) as a theoretical framework, and using longitudinal data from kindergarten to Grade 2. Structural equation model results showed that theory of mind partially mediated the relations in both grades, and the effects (standardized regression weights) were similar in kindergarten and Grade 2. Interestingly, the relations of language and cognitive skills to theory of mind differed in kindergarten versus Grade 2. Language and cognitive skills had moderate to strong longitudinal stability, and these skills in kindergarten were indirectly related to discourse comprehension in Grade 2 via the language and cognitive skills in Grade 2. These results support the mediating role of theory of mind as well as the nature of structural and longitudinal relations among language and cognitive skills and to discourse comprehension.

Theory of mind, language, and reading: Developmental relations from early childhood to early adolescence

This study longitudinally investigated the relation between theory of mind (ToM) and verbal language skills in 231 children from preschool to early adolescence. Further, links to reading comprehension of texts at age 13;7 (years;months) were examined. To assess ToM, children completed false belief tasks at 5;6 and the Strange Stories at 12;8. To assess language, children completed a receptive grammar/sentence comprehension test at 3;6 and 5;6, a receptive vocabulary test at 3;6, 5;6 and 12;8, as well as a test of listening comprehension of texts at 13;7. A bidirectional relation between early and advanced measures of children's language skills and ToM was found: Changes in ToM were predicted by language skills, especially by receptive grammar/sentence comprehension; changes in children's receptive vocabulary were predicted by early ToM. However, early ToM had no direct or indirect effect on later listening comprehension or reading comprehension after controlling for early language skills. Only children's advanced ToM had a small indirect effect on reading comprehension, via listening comprehension. The results are discussed in light of ToM stability over time, and theories on how language and ToM development are intertwined.

Speaking Your Mind: Language and Narrative in Young Children's Theory of Mind Development

Research consistently finds that language and theory of mind are interrelated. The content and qualities of language that specifically predict theory of mind remain under investigation and the question of why language might impact theory of mind development is open. In this chapter we analyze and highlight current findings and theory addressing theory of mind and language. The principal focus is upon typically developing children between ages 2 and 5, a period characterized by extensive development in language and social understanding. We propose that the study of young children's narrative development can inform how and why language and theory of mind are connected. False belief understanding and narrative comprehension share many similarities and this association provides a promising avenue for future work.

A Systematic Review of Theory of Mind’s Precursors and Functions

Abstract. We conducted a systematic review of longitudinal theory of mind (ToM) studies, focusing on the precursors to and functional outcomes of ToM in typically-developing samples. Our search yielded 87 longitudinal studies, all of which involved children and adolescents. Early attention skills, executive function development, and the use of language are precursors to ToM development. Additionally, quality interaction with parents and older siblings can foster early improvements in ToM. Healthy ToM development improves social relationships with peers and produces greater desire to engage in prosocial behaviors. However, victimized individuals with highly-developed ToM may engage in increased aggression. Future longitudinal research is needed to investigate the functional outcomes resulting from ToM changes in adulthood.

A Preliminary Investigation of Parent-reported Fiction versus Non-fiction Book Preferences of School-Age Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Anecdotal evidence suggests that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) prefer non-fiction books over fiction books. The current study was the first to investigate parent-reports of children with ASD's fiction and non-fiction book preferences and whether these relate to individual differences in social communication, oral language, and/or reading abilities.

METHOD

Children (ages 8-14 years, M = 10.89, SD = 1.17) with ASD diagnoses (n = 19) and typically developing (TD) peers (n = 21) participated. Children completed standardized measures of social communication, oral language, and reading abilities. Parents reported children's current favorite book, and from these responses, we coded children's fiction versus non-fiction book preferences.

MAIN CONTRIBUTION

Contrary to anecdotal evidence, children with ASD preferred fiction similar to their TD peers. Fiction versus non-fiction book preference was significantly related to social communication abilities across both groups. Children's oral language and reading abilities were related, as expected, but the evidence for a relationship between social communication and reading comprehension was mixed.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides preliminary evidence supporting the association of social communication in fiction versus non-fiction book preference, which may be related to children's comprehension and support the theoretical role of social communication knowledge in narrative/fiction.

IMPLICATIONS

It should not be assumed that all children with ASD prefer expository/non-fiction or do not read narrative/fiction. Children who prefer non-fiction may need additional social communication knowledge support to improve their understanding of narrative fiction.