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Ino K, Utagawa Y, Shiku H. Microarray-Based Electrochemical Biosensing. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2024; 187:317-338. [PMID: 37306698 DOI: 10.1007/10_2023_229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Microarrays are widely utilized in bioanalysis. Electrochemical biosensing techniques are often applied in microarray-based assays because of their simplicity, low cost, and high sensitivity. In such systems, the electrodes and sensing elements are arranged in arrays, and the target analytes are detected electrochemically. These sensors can be utilized for high-throughput bioanalysis and the electrochemical imaging of biosamples, including proteins, oligonucleotides, and cells. In this chapter, we summarize recent progress on these topics. We categorize electrochemical biosensing techniques for array detection into four groups: scanning electrochemical microscopy, electrode arrays, electrochemiluminescence, and bipolar electrodes. For each technique, we summarize the key principles and discuss the advantages, disadvantages, and bioanalysis applications. Finally, we present conclusions and perspectives about future directions in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Ino
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
| | - Yoshinobu Utagawa
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi, Japan.
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2
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Lin TE, Darvishi S. A Brief Review of In Situ and Operando Electrochemical Analysis of Bacteria by Scanning Probes. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:695. [PMID: 37504094 PMCID: PMC10377567 DOI: 10.3390/bios13070695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria are similar to social organisms that engage in critical interactions with one another, forming spatially structured communities. Despite extensive research on the composition, structure, and communication of bacteria, the mechanisms behind their interactions and biofilm formation are not yet fully understood. To address this issue, scanning probe techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM), and scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM) have been utilized to analyze bacteria. This review article focuses on summarizing the use of electrochemical scanning probes for investigating bacteria, including analysis of electroactive metabolites, enzymes, oxygen consumption, ion concentrations, pH values, biofilms, and quorum sensing molecules to provide a better understanding of bacterial interactions and communication. SECM has been combined with other techniques, such as AFM, inverted optical microscopy, SICM, and fluorescence microscopy. This allows a comprehensive study of the surfaces of bacteria while also providing more information on their metabolic activity. In general, the use of scanning probes for the detection of bacteria has shown great promise and has the potential to provide a powerful tool for the study of bacterial physiology and the detection of bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Sorour Darvishi
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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3
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Gianvittorio S, Tonelli D, Lesch A. Print-Light-Synthesis for Single-Step Metal Nanoparticle Synthesis and Patterned Electrode Production. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:1915. [PMID: 37446431 DOI: 10.3390/nano13131915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication of thin-film electrodes, which contain metal nanoparticles and nanostructures for applications in electrochemical sensing as well as energy conversion and storage, is often based on multi-step procedures that include two main passages: (i) the synthesis and purification of nanomaterials and (ii) the fabrication of thin films by coating electrode supports with these nanomaterials. The patterning and miniaturization of thin film electrodes generally require masks or advanced patterning instrumentation. In recent years, various approaches have been presented to integrate the spatially resolved deposition of metal precursor solutions and the rapid conversion of the precursors into metal nanoparticles. To achieve the latter, high intensity light irradiation has, in particular, become suitable as it enables the photochemical, photocatalytical, and photothermal conversion of the precursors during or slightly after the precursor deposition. The conversion of the metal precursors directly on the target substrates can make the use of capping and stabilizing agents obsolete. This review focuses on hybrid platforms that comprise digital metal precursor ink printing and high intensity light irradiation for inducing metal precursor conversions into patterned metal and alloy nanoparticles. The combination of the two methods has recently been named Print-Light-Synthesis by a group of collaborators and is characterized by its sustainability in terms of low material consumption, low material waste, and reduced synthesis steps. It provides high control of precursor loading and light irradiation, both affecting and improving the fabrication of thin film electrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Gianvittorio
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Center for Chemical Catalysis-C3, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Domenica Tonelli
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Center for Chemical Catalysis-C3, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Department of Industrial Chemistry "Toso Montanari", University of Bologna, Center for Chemical Catalysis-C3, Viale del Risorgimento 4, 40136 Bologna, Italy
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4
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Chen H, Kong X, Wang D, Zhang M. Flexible Disk Ultramicroelectrode for High-Resolution and Substrate-Tolerable Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy Imaging. Anal Chem 2022; 94:17320-17327. [PMID: 36448925 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
A simple and universal strategy for fabricating flexible 25 μm platinum (Pt) disk ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs) was proposed, where a pulled borosilicate glass micropipette acted as a mold for shaping the flexible tip with flexible epoxy resin. The whole preparation procedure was highly efficient, enabling 10 or more probes to be manually fabricated within 10 h. Intriguingly, this technique permits an adjustable RG ratio, tip length, and stiffness, which could be tuned according to varying experimental demands. Besides, the electroactive area of the probe could be exposed and made renewable with a thin blade, allowing its reuse in multiple experiments. The flexibility characterization was then employed to optimize the resin/hardener mass ratio of epoxy resin and the tip position during HF etching in the fabrication process, suggesting that more hardener, a larger RG value, or a longer tip length obtained stronger deformation resistance. Subsequently, the as-prepared probe was examined by optical microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and SECM approach curves. The results demonstrated the probe possessed good geometry with a small RG ratio of less than 3 and exceptional electrochemical properties, and its insulating sheath remained undeformed after blade cutting. Owing to the tip's flexibility, it could be operated in contactless mode with an extremely low working distance and even in contact mode scanning to achieve high spatial resolution and high sensitivity while guaranteeing that the tip and samples would suffer minimal damage if the tip crashed. Finally, the flexible probe was successfully employed in three scanning scenarios where tilted and 3D structured PDMS microchips, a latent fingerprint deposited on the stiff copper sheet, and soft egg white were included. In all, the flexible probe encompasses the advantages of traditional disk UMEs and circumvents their principal drawbacks of tip crash and causing sample scratches, which is thus more compatible with large specimens of 3D structured, stiff, or even soft topography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyu Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Bioengineering and Sensing Technology, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road, Beijing100083, China
| | - Xiangyi Kong
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Bioengineering and Sensing Technology, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road, Beijing100083, China
| | - Dongrui Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Bioengineering and Sensing Technology, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road, Beijing100083, China
| | - Meiqin Zhang
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Bioengineering and Sensing Technology, School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Road, Beijing100083, China
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5
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Dorfi AE, Yan J, Wright J, Esposito DV. Compressed Sensing Image Reconstruction of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy Measurements Carried Out at Ultrahigh Scan Speeds Using Continuous Line Probes. Anal Chem 2021; 93:12574-12581. [PMID: 34496203 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies on scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) imaging with nonlocal continuous line probes (CLPs) have demonstrated the ability to increase areal imaging rates by an order of magnitude compared to SECM based on conventional ultramicroelectrode (UME) disk electrodes. Increasing the linear scan speed of the CLP during imaging presents an opportunity to increase imaging rates even further but results in a significant deterioration in image quality due to transport processes in the liquid electrolyte. Here, we show that compressed sensing (CS) postprocessing can be successfully applied to CLP-based SECM measurements to reconstruct images with minimal distortion at probe scan rates greatly exceeding the conventional SECM ″speed limit″. By systematically evaluating the image quality of images generated by adaptable postprocessing CS methods for CLP-SECM data collected at varying scan rates, this work establishes a new upper bound for CLP scan rates. While conventional SECM imaging typically uses probe scan speeds characterized by Péclet numbers (Pe) < 1, this study shows that CS postprocessing methods can allow for an accurate image reconstruction for Pe approaching 5, corresponding to an order of magnitude increase in the maximum probe scan speed. This upper limit corresponds to the onset of chaotic convective flows within the electrolyte for the probes investigated in this work, highlighting the importance of considering hydrodynamics in the design of fast-scanning probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Dorfi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Jingkai Yan
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States.,Data Science Institute, Columbia University in the City of New York, Northwest Corner, 550 W 120th St. #1401, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - John Wright
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States.,Data Science Institute, Columbia University in the City of New York, Northwest Corner, 550 W 120th St. #1401, New York, New York 10027, United States
| | - Daniel V Esposito
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States.,Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States.,Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University in the City of New York, 500 W. 120th St., New York, New York 10027, United States
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6
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Dorfi AE, Zhou S, West AC, Wright J, Esposito DV. Probing the Speed Limits of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy with In situ Colorimetric Imaging. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna E. Dorfi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable EnergyColumbia University in the City of New York 500 W 120th Street New York NY 10027 USA
| | - Shijie Zhou
- Department of Electrical EngineeringColumbia University in the City of New York 500 W 120th Street New York NY 10027 USA
| | - Alan C. West
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable EnergyColumbia University in the City of New York 500 W 120th Street New York NY 10027 USA
| | - John Wright
- Department of Electrical EngineeringColumbia University in the City of New York 500 W 120th Street New York NY 10027 USA
| | - Daniel V. Esposito
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable EnergyColumbia University in the City of New York 500 W 120th Street New York NY 10027 USA
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7
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Dorfi AE, Kuo HW, Smirnova V, Wright J, Esposito DV. Design and operation of a scanning electrochemical microscope for imaging with continuous line probes. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2019; 90:083702. [PMID: 31472628 DOI: 10.1063/1.5095951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This article describes a home-built scanning electrochemical microscope capable of achieving high areal imaging rates through the use of continuous line probes (CLPs) and compressed sensing (CS) image reconstruction. The CLP is a nonlocal probe consisting of a band electrode, where the achievable spatial resolution is set by the thickness of the band and the achievable imaging rate is largely determined by its width. A combination of linear and rotational motors allows for CLP scanning at different angles over areas up to 25 cm2 to generate the raw signal necessary to reconstruct the desired electrochemical image using CS signal analysis algorithms. Herein, we provide detailed descriptions of CLP fabrication, microscope design, and the procedures used to carry out scanning electrochemical microscopy imaging with CLPs. In order to illustrate the basic operating procedures for the microscope, line scans and images measured in the substrate generation-probe-collection mode for flat samples containing platinum disk electrodes are presented. These exemplary measurements illustrate methods for calibrating the positioning system, positioning and cleaning the CLP, and verifying proper positioning/probe sensitivity along its length.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna E Dorfi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Han-Wen Kuo
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Data Science Institute, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Vera Smirnova
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - John Wright
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Data Science Institute, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, New York 10027, USA
| | - Daniel V Esposito
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Columbia Electrochemical Energy Center, Lenfest Center for Sustainable Energy, Columbia University in the City of New York, New York, New York 10027, USA
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8
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Zhang H, Moon SK, Ngo TH. Hybrid Machine Learning Method to Determine the Optimal Operating Process Window in Aerosol Jet 3D Printing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:17994-18003. [PMID: 31012300 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b02898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol jet printing (AJP) is a three-dimensional (3D) noncontact and direct printing technology for fabricating customized microelectronic devices on flexible substrates. Despite the capability of fine feature deposition, the complicated relationship between the main process parameters will affect the printing quality significantly in a design space. In this paper, a novel hybrid machine learning method is proposed to determine the optimal operating process window for the AJP process in various design spaces. The proposed method consists of classic machine learning methods, including experimental sampling, data clustering, classification, and knowledge transfer. In the proposed method, a two-dimensional design space is fully explored by a Latin hypercube sampling experimental design at a certain print speed. Then, the influence of the sheath gas flow rate (SHGFR) and the carrier gas flow rate (CGFR) on the printed line quality is analyzed by a K-means clustering approach, and an optimal operating process window is determined by a support vector machine. To efficiently identify more operating process windows at different print speeds, a transfer learning approach is applied to exploit relatedness between different operating process windows. Hence, at a new print speed, the number of line samples for identifying a new operating process window is greatly reduced. Finally, to balance the complex relationship among SHGFR, CGFR, and print speed, a 3D operating process window is determined by an incremental classification approach. Different from experiment-based approaches adopted in 3D printing technologies for quality optimization, the proposed method is developed based on the theory of knowledge discovery and data mining. Therefore, the knowledge in different design spaces can be fully explored and transferred for printed line quality optimization. Moreover, the data-driven-based characteristics can help the proposed method develop a guideline for quality optimization in other 3D printing technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haining Zhang
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , Nanyang Technological University , Singapore 639798
| | - Seung Ki Moon
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering , Nanyang Technological University , Singapore 639798
| | - Teck Hui Ngo
- SMRT Corporation Ltd , Singapore , Singapore 579828
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9
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Ino K, Şen M, Shiku H, Matsue T. Micro/nanoelectrochemical probe and chip devices for evaluation of three-dimensional cultured cells. Analyst 2018; 142:4343-4354. [PMID: 29106427 DOI: 10.1039/c7an01442b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we present an overview of recent research progress in the development of micro/nanoelectrochemical probe and chip devices for the evaluation of three-dimensional (3D) cultured cells. First, we discuss probe devices: a general outline, evaluation of O2 consumption, enzyme-modified electrodes, evaluation of endogenous enzyme activity, and the collection of cell components from cell aggregates are discussed. The next section is focused on integrated chip devices: a general outline, electrode array devices, smart electrode array devices, droplet detection of 3D cultured cells, cell manipulation using dielectrophoresis (DEP), and electrodeposited hydrogels used for fabrication of 3D cultured cells on chip devices are discussed. Finally, we provide a summary and discussion of future directions of research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Ino
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-406 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Mustafa Şen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Izmir Katip Celebi University, 35620 Cigli, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-406 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.
| | - Tomokazu Matsue
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan.
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10
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Effect of Electrode Shape and Flow Conditions on the Electrochemical Detection with Band Microelectrodes. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18103196. [PMID: 30248945 PMCID: PMC6210975 DOI: 10.3390/s18103196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we report the analysis of the electrochemical detection of electroactive species with band microelectrodes that operate under controlled convection. The study focuses on the determination of the collection efficiency of the analyte as a function of inlet flow velocity and microband geometry (inlaid, bumped and recessed), also providing a straightforward method for the theoretical determination of the lower detection limit. The analysis has been carried out by simulating the dimensionless mass transport with the finite element method, delivering the stationary limiting current density. Simulations have been performed on systems consisting of single and double band electrodes to investigate the trail effect on the electrochemical detection. We show that the obtained dimensionless results can be easily turned into dimensional data, providing a tool for the design of devices. The proposed method is general and can easily be extended to systems with different geometry.
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11
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Lin TE, Lu YJ, Sun CL, Pick H, Chen JP, Lesch A, Girault HH. Weiche elektrochemische Sonden zum Abbilden der Verteilung von Biomarkern und injizierten Nanomaterialien in tierischem und menschlichem Gewebe. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201709271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
| | - Yu-Jen Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Chang Gung University College of Medicine; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Liang Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL; 1015 Lausanne Schweiz
| | - Jyh-Ping Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Craniofacial Research Center; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
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12
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Lin TE, Lu YJ, Sun CL, Pick H, Chen JP, Lesch A, Girault HH. Soft Electrochemical Probes for Mapping the Distribution of Biomarkers and Injected Nanomaterials in Animal and Human Tissues. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:16498-16502. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201709271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Yu-Jen Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Chang Gung University College of Medicine; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Liang Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Jyh-Ping Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Craniofacial Research Center; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
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13
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Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing. Chem Rev 2017; 117:10212-10290. [PMID: 28756658 PMCID: PMC5553103 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1176] [Impact Index Per Article: 168.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) alias 3D printing translates computer-aided design (CAD) virtual 3D models into physical objects. By digital slicing of CAD, 3D scan, or tomography data, AM builds objects layer by layer without the need for molds or machining. AM enables decentralized fabrication of customized objects on demand by exploiting digital information storage and retrieval via the Internet. The ongoing transition from rapid prototyping to rapid manufacturing prompts new challenges for mechanical engineers and materials scientists alike. Because polymers are by far the most utilized class of materials for AM, this Review focuses on polymer processing and the development of polymers and advanced polymer systems specifically for AM. AM techniques covered include vat photopolymerization (stereolithography), powder bed fusion (SLS), material and binder jetting (inkjet and aerosol 3D printing), sheet lamination (LOM), extrusion (FDM, 3D dispensing, 3D fiber deposition, and 3D plotting), and 3D bioprinting. The range of polymers used in AM encompasses thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, hydrogels, functional polymers, polymer blends, composites, and biological systems. Aspects of polymer design, additives, and processing parameters as they relate to enhancing build speed and improving accuracy, functionality, surface finish, stability, mechanical properties, and porosity are addressed. Selected applications demonstrate how polymer-based AM is being exploited in lightweight engineering, architecture, food processing, optics, energy technology, dentistry, drug delivery, and personalized medicine. Unparalleled by metals and ceramics, polymer-based AM plays a key role in the emerging AM of advanced multifunctional and multimaterial systems including living biological systems as well as life-like synthetic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Clark Ligon
- Laboratory
for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, The
Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Jürgen Stampfl
- Institute of Applied
Synthetic Chemistry and Institute of Materials Science and
Technology, TU Wien, Getreidemarkt 9, Vienna A-1060, Austria
| | - Matthias Gurr
- H.
B. Fuller Deutschland GmbH, An der Roten Bleiche 2-3, Lüneburg D-21335, Germany
| | - Rolf Mülhaupt
- Freiburg
Materials Research Center (FMF) and Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 31, Freiburg D-79104, Germany
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14
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Ligon SC, Liska R, Stampfl J, Gurr M, Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D Printing and Customized Additive Manufacturing. Chem Rev 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00074 impact factor 2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Clark Ligon
- Laboratory
for High Performance Ceramics, Empa, The Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Matthias Gurr
- H. B. Fuller Deutschland GmbH, An der Roten Bleiche 2-3, Lüneburg D-21335, Germany
| | - Rolf Mülhaupt
- Freiburg
Materials Research Center (FMF) and Institute for Macromolecular Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 31, Freiburg D-79104, Germany
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15
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Gunderson C, Zhang B. Microfabricated, Massive Electrochemical Arrays of Uniform Ultramicroelectrodes. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2016; 781:174-180. [PMID: 28579929 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2016.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We report the preparation and electrochemical characterization of massive electrochemical arrays containing as many as 110,000 highly uniform ultramicroelectrodes (UMEs). These arrays were microfabricated using conventional photolithography techniques on a gold-coated silicon chip in a simple three-step method. Photoresist polymer was used as an effective insulating matrix to define 2 μm, 3 μm, and 4 μm diameter circular UMEs across a 1 × 1 mm2 area. The UME arrays are high uniform and contain tens of thousands of active disk-shape UMEs slightly recessed in thin films of photoresist. These arrays were tested with cyclic voltammetry and copper electrodeposition to assess the adhesion of photoresist to the gold surface as well as to examine their electrochemical activity. Numerical simulations were performed to further validate their electrochemical response. These UME arrays can be a useful platform for fundamental understanding molecular transport in uniform electrochemical arrays and designing highly-sensitive electroanalytical sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Gunderson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle Washington 98195 United States
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle Washington 98195 United States
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Koutilellis GD, Economou A, Efstathiou CE. A potentiostat featuring an integrator transimpedance amplifier for the measurement of very low currents--Proof-of-principle application in microfluidic separations and voltammetry. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2016; 87:034101. [PMID: 27036788 DOI: 10.1063/1.4942915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
This work reports the design and construction of a novel potentiostat which features an integrator transimpedance amplifier as a current-monitoring unit. The integration approach addresses the limitations of the feedback resistor approach used for current monitoring in conventional potentiostat designs. In the present design, measurement of the current is performed by a precision switched integrator transimpedance amplifier operated in the dual sampling mode which enables sub-pA resolution. The potentiostat is suitable for measuring very low currents (typical dynamic range: 5 pA-4.7 μA) with a 16 bit resolution, and it can support 2-, 3- and 4-electrode cell configurations. Its operation was assessed by using it as a detection module in a home-made capillary electrophoresis system for the separation and amperometric detection of paracetamol and p-aminophenol at a 3-electrode microfluidic chip. The potential and limitations of the proposed potentiostat to implement fast potential-scan voltammetric techniques were demonstrated for the case of cyclic voltammetry.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Koutilellis
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 157 71, Greece
| | - A Economou
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 157 71, Greece
| | - C E Efstathiou
- Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis, Athens 157 71, Greece
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Lin TE, Bondarenko A, Lesch A, Pick H, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH. Untersuchung der Tyrosinase-Expression in nicht-metastatischen und metastatischen Melanomgeweben durch elektrochemische Rastersondenmikroskopie. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201509397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Alexandra Bondarenko
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers and Membranes; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; CH-1015 Lausanne Schweiz
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
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18
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Lin TE, Bondarenko A, Lesch A, Pick H, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH. Monitoring Tyrosinase Expression in Non-metastatic and Metastatic Melanoma Tissues by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:3813-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201509397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Bondarenko
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers and Membranes; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
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Bondarenko A, Cortés-Salazar F, Gheorghiu M, Gáspár S, Momotenko D, Stanica L, Lesch A, Gheorghiu E, Girault HH. Electrochemical push-pull probe: from scanning electrochemical microscopy to multimodal altering of cell microenvironment. Anal Chem 2015; 87:4479-86. [PMID: 25833001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To understand biological processes at the cellular level, a general approach is to alter the cells' environment and to study their chemical responses. Herein, we present the implementation of an electrochemical push-pull probe, which combines a microfluidic system with a microelectrode, as a tool for locally altering the microenvironment of few adherent living cells by working in two different perturbation modes, namely electrochemical (i.e., electrochemical generation of a chemical effector compound) and microfluidic (i.e., infusion of a chemical effector compound from the pushing microchannel, while simultaneously aspirating it through the pulling channel, thereby focusing the flow between the channels). The effect of several parameters such as flow rate, working distance, and probe inclination angle on the affected area of adherently growing cells was investigated both theoretically and experimentally. As a proof of concept, localized fluorescent labeling and pH changes were purposely introduced to validate the probe as a tool for studying adherent cancer cells through the control over the chemical composition of the extracellular space with high spatiotemporal resolution. A very good agreement between experimental and simulated results showed that the electrochemical perturbation mode enables to affect precisely only a few living cells localized in a high-density cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Bondarenko
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mihaela Gheorghiu
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Szilveszter Gáspár
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Dmitry Momotenko
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Luciana Stanica
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania.,§Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Andreas Lesch
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eugen Gheorghiu
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania.,§Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Hubert H Girault
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Pribil MM, Cortés-Salazar F, Andreyev EA, Lesch A, Karyakina EE, Voronin OG, Girault HH, Karyakin AA. Rapid optimization of a lactate biosensor design using soft probes scanning electrochemical microscopy. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2014.08.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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21
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Kranz C. Recent advancements in nanoelectrodes and nanopipettes used in combined scanning electrochemical microscopy techniques. Analyst 2014; 139:336-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01651j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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22
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Lesch A, Chen PC, Roelfs F, Dosche C, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Finger Probe Array for Topography-Tolerant Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy of Extended Samples. Anal Chem 2013; 86:713-20. [DOI: 10.1021/ac403168p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Lesch
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Po-Chung Chen
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Folkert Roelfs
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Dosche
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Dmitry Momotenko
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gunther Wittstock
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
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23
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High-throughput scanning electrochemical microscopy brushing of strongly tilted and curved surfaces. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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25
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26
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Mahajan A, Frisbie CD, Francis LF. Optimization of aerosol jet printing for high-resolution, high-aspect ratio silver lines. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:4856-64. [PMID: 23659570 DOI: 10.1021/am400606y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Aerosol jet printing requires control of a number of process parameters, including the flow rate of the carrier gas that transports the aerosol mist to the substrate, the flow rate of the sheath gas that collimates the aerosol into a narrow beam, and the speed of the stage that transports the substrate beneath the beam. In this paper, the influence of process parameters on the geometry of aerosol-jet-printed silver lines is studied with the aim of creating high-resolution conductive lines of high current carrying capacity. A systematic study of process conditions revealed a key parameter: the ratio of the sheath gas flow rate to the carrier gas flow rate, defined here as the focusing ratio. Line width decreases with increasing the focusing ratio and stage speed. Simultaneously, the thickness increases with increasing the focusing ratio but decreases with increasing stage speed. Geometry control also influences the resistance per unit length and single pass printing of low-resistance silver lines is demonstrated. The results are used to develop an operability window and locate the regime for printing tall and narrow silver lines in a single pass. Under optimum conditions, lines as narrow as 20 μm with aspect ratios (thickness/width) greater than 0.1 are obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankit Mahajan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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27
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Local control of protein binding and cell adhesion by patterned organic thin films. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3673-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6748-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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28
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Etienne M, Lhenry S, Cornut R, Lefrou C. Optimization of the shearforce signal for scanning electrochemical microscopy and application for kinetic analysis. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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29
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Guerrette JP, Percival SJ, Zhang B. Fluorescence Coupling for Direct Imaging of Electrocatalytic Heterogeneity. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 135:855-61. [DOI: 10.1021/ja310401b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joshua P. Guerrette
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Stephen J. Percival
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
| | - Bo Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1700, United States
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30
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Lesch A, Vaske B, Meiners F, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Parallel Imaging and Template-Free Patterning of Self-Assembled Monolayers with Soft Linear Microelectrode Arrays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:10413-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201205347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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31
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Lesch A, Vaske B, Meiners F, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Parallele Abbildung und templatfreie Strukturierung selbstorganisierter Monoschichten mit weichen linearen Mikroelektrodenarrays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201205347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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32
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Momotenko D, Qiao L, Cortés-Salazar F, Lesch A, Wittstock G, Girault HH. Electrochemical Push–Pull Scanner with Mass Spectrometry Detection. Anal Chem 2012; 84:6630-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac300999v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry Momotenko
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Liang Qiao
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, D-26111
Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Gunther Wittstock
- Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, D-26111
Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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