1
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Fang L, Qiu F, Wang Y. Determination of tetrodotoxin in human plasma and urine using online MCX SPE column cleanup coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2024; 1244:124174. [PMID: 39042965 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2024.124174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
An efficient technique for quantitative analysis of tetrodotoxin (TTX) in human plasma and urine has been developed, which combines liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with online MCX solid phase extraction (SPE) cleanup. Sample preparation, including extraction with acetonitrile containing 0.5 % acetate acid, centrifugation, and filtration, was followed by online SPE cleanup. The whole run-time was less than 15 min, including online cleanup, chromatographic separation, and re-equilibration of the online SPE - LC-MS/MS system. The parameters of sample extraction, purification, separation, and detection were optimized. The matrix-matched internal standard calibration standard curves with linear regression coefficients larger than 0.9990 were established for quantification. The LOD and LOQ for this approach were determined to be 0.1 ng/mL and 0.3 ng/mL, respectively. The recoveries for varied concentrations of TTX in human plasma and urine were 84.9-104.2 % and 89.2-109.6 %, respectively. The matrix effects of TTX in human plasma and urine matrices were 85.5 % and 74.3 %, respectively, and both the inter- and intra-day precision values were less than 9.5 %. This analytical method was successfully employed for detecting TTX in biological samples from a poisoned patient who accidentally ingested the nassarius glans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Fang
- Key Laboratory of Health Risk Factors for Seafood of Zhejiang Province (Zhoushan Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention), Zhoushan 316021, PR China.
| | - Fengmei Qiu
- Putuo Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Zhoushan 316100, PR China.
| | - Yuchao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Health Risk Factors for Seafood of Zhejiang Province (Zhoushan Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention), Zhoushan 316021, PR China
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2
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Reverté J, Rambla-Alegre M, Sanchez-Henao A, Mandalakis M, Peristeraki P, Molgó J, Diogène J, Sureda FX, Campàs M. Toxicity Equivalency Factors for Tetrodotoxin Analogues Determined with Automated Patch Clamp on Voltage-Gated Sodium Channels in Neuro-2a Cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:18192-18200. [PMID: 39102522 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c04321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/07/2024]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent marine neurotoxin, responsible for numerous poisoning incidents and some human fatalities. To date, more than 30 TTX analogues have been identified, but their individual toxicities and roles in poisoning remain largely unknown. In this work, the toxicity equivalency factors (TEFs) of five TTX analogues were determined by assessing the blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels in Neuro-2a cells using automated patch clamp (APC). All TTX analogues were less toxic than TTX. The derived TEFs were applied to the individual TTX analogues concentrations measured in pufferfish samples, using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). A comparison of these results with those obtained from APC analysis demonstrated that TEFs can be effectively used to translate LC-MS/MS analytical data into meaningful toxicological information. This is the first study to utilize APC device for the toxicological assessment of TTX analogues, highlighting its potential as a bioanalytical tool for seafood safety management and human health protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Reverté
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
- Basic Medical Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), C/St. Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain
| | | | - Andres Sanchez-Henao
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
- University Institute of Animal Health and Food Safety (IUSA), University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35416 Arucas, Spain
| | - Manolis Mandalakis
- Institute of Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Panagiota Peristeraki
- Institute of Marine Biological Resources and Inland Waters, Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Jordi Molgó
- French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission (CEA), University of Paris-Saclay, INRAE, DMTS, SIMoS, EMR CNRS 9004, 91191 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
| | - Francesc X Sureda
- Basic Medical Sciences Department, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili (URV), C/St. Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra, Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain
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3
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Campàs M, Reverté J, Tudó À, Alkassar M, Diogène J, Sureda FX. Automated Patch Clamp for the Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish Samples. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:176. [PMID: 38667793 PMCID: PMC11050952 DOI: 10.3390/md22040176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 04/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a marine toxin responsible for many intoxications around the world. Its presence in some pufferfish species and, as recently reported, in shellfish, poses a serious health concern. Although TTX is not routinely monitored, there is a need for fast, sensitive, reliable, and simple methods for its detection and quantification. In this work, we describe the use of an automated patch clamp (APC) system with Neuro-2a cells for the determination of TTX contents in pufferfish samples. The cells showed an IC50 of 6.4 nM for TTX and were not affected by the presence of muscle, skin, liver, and gonad tissues of a Sphoeroides pachygaster specimen (TTX-free) when analysed at 10 mg/mL. The LOD achieved with this technique was 0.05 mg TTX equiv./kg, which is far below the Japanese regulatory limit of 2 mg TTX equiv./kg. The APC system was applied to the analysis of extracts of a Lagocephalus sceleratus specimen, showing TTX contents that followed the trend of gonads > liver > skin > muscle. The APC system, providing an in vitro toxicological approach, offers the advantages of being sensitive, rapid, and reliable for the detection of TTX-like compounds in seafood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Marine and Continental Waters (AMiC) Programme, Ctra. Poble Nou del Delta, km. 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (J.R.); (M.A.); (J.D.)
| | - Jaume Reverté
- IRTA, Marine and Continental Waters (AMiC) Programme, Ctra. Poble Nou del Delta, km. 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (J.R.); (M.A.); (J.D.)
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain;
| | - Àngels Tudó
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain;
| | - Mounira Alkassar
- IRTA, Marine and Continental Waters (AMiC) Programme, Ctra. Poble Nou del Delta, km. 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (J.R.); (M.A.); (J.D.)
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain;
| | - Jorge Diogène
- IRTA, Marine and Continental Waters (AMiC) Programme, Ctra. Poble Nou del Delta, km. 5.5, 43540 La Ràpita, Spain; (J.R.); (M.A.); (J.D.)
| | - Francesc X. Sureda
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, C/Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Spain;
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4
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Highly sensitive and quantitative fluorescent strip immunosensor based on an independent control system for rapid detection of tetrodotoxin in shellfish. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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5
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Lage S, Afonso II, Reis Costa P, Canário AVM, Da Silva JP. Tissue accumulation of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and analogues in trumpet shell Charonia lampas. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:159-168. [PMID: 36441669 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2022.2148756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for a human intoxication event in Spain associated with the consumption of trumpet shell Charonia lampas. In Europe, TTX is not regulated or monitored, and there is little knowledge about its presence in seafood. Here, we investigated the tissue distribution of TTX and analogues in three specimens of trumpet shell C. lampas bought in a market in southern Portugal. Toxin concentration was above the EFSA recommended limit in the non-edible tissues of all specimens and within the limit in the edible tissues of two specimens. 4,9-AnhydroTTX and 13 additional TTX analogues were detected in tissues, the most abundant being anhydrotrideoxyTTX and trideoxyTTX. These results suggest that although thorough evisceration may lower the amount of TTX consumed, it may not be sufficient to ensure consumer safety. Regular monitoring of TTX and analogues in trumpet shell and other edible gastropods is therefore recommended to avoid poisoning incidents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Lage
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Inês I Afonso
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Pedro Reis Costa
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal.,Portuguese Institute for the Sea and Atmosphere (IPMA), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Adelino V M Canário
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - José P Da Silva
- Centre of Marine Sciences (CCMAR/CIMAR LA), University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
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6
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Xin L, Liang Y, Yang S, Jiang F, Yu F, Zhang M, Chang W, Wang W, Yu C, Liu G, Lu Y. Simple and fast determination of tetrodotoxin in human plasma based on hydrophilic-interaction/ion-exchange mixed-mode solid phase extraction combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectroscopy. J Chromatogr A 2022; 1684:463567. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2022.463567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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7
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Baptista M, Braga AC, Rosa R, Costa PR. Does Ocean Sunfish Mola spp. (Tetraodontiformes: Molidae) Represent a Risk for Tetrodotoxin Poisoning in the Portuguese Coast? Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20100594. [PMID: 36286418 PMCID: PMC9604967 DOI: 10.3390/md20100594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin naturally occurring in terrestrial and marine organisms such as pufferfish. Due to the risk of TTX poisoning, fish of Tetraodontidae family and other puffer-related species must not be placed in the EU markets. This restriction applies to fish of the family Molidae even though no data on toxins’ occurrence is available. In this study, the presence of TTX and its analogues was investigated in the main edible tissue (the white muscle) and the main xenobiotics storage organ (the liver) of ocean sunfish Mola spp. (n = 13) from the South Portuguese coast. HILIC-MS/MS analyses did not reveal TTX in the analyzed samples, suggesting an inexistent or very limited risk of TTX poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel Baptista
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET—Aquatic Research Network, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 2750-005 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Catarina Braga
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute for the Ocean and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, n° 6, 1495-165 Lisbon, Portugal
- S2AQUA—Collaborative Laboratory, Association for a Sustainable and Smart Aquaculture, Av. Parque Natural da Ria Formosa s/n, 8700-194 Olhão, Portugal
| | - Rui Rosa
- MARE—Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET—Aquatic Research Network, Laboratório Marítimo da Guia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 2750-005 Lisbon, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, 1349-063 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Pedro Reis Costa
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute for the Ocean and Atmosphere, Av. Alfredo Magalhães Ramalho, n° 6, 1495-165 Lisbon, Portugal
- S2AQUA—Collaborative Laboratory, Association for a Sustainable and Smart Aquaculture, Av. Parque Natural da Ria Formosa s/n, 8700-194 Olhão, Portugal
- CCMAR—Centre of Marine Sciences, Campus de Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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8
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Threshold values on environmental chemical contaminants in seafood in the European Economic Area. Food Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.108978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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9
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Gouel P, Gatti CMI, de Haro L, Liautaud A, Langrand J, Boucaud-Maitre D. Tetrodotoxin Poisoning in Mainland France and French Overseas Territories: A Review of Published and Unpublished Cases. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14050351. [PMID: 35622597 PMCID: PMC9146393 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14050351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is one of the most potent neurotoxins in the aquatic world. This review of published and unpublished reports aims to describe the poisoning cases that have occurred in mainland France and overseas territories. Six articles were included, with 13 poisoning events, individuals or collective (number (n) = 53 patients). Moreover, 13 unpublished poisoning events from toxicovigilance networks were found (n = 17). All cases happened in overseas territories: French Guyana (n = 7), New Caledonia (n = 11), Reunion (n = 35) and French Polynesia (n = 17). The median age was 36 years. The most frequent signs were neurological (81.8%), digestive (54.5%) and general (52.3%). Three cases of dysgueusia and nine cases of urogenital discomfort were observed in French Polynesia. Twelve severe cases were reported, including seven deaths. Only three events (11.5%) were documented by a tetrodotoxin assay. Two families of fish accounted for 91.6% of the poisonings: 33.3% due to the Diodontidae family and 58.3% to the Tetraodontidae family. Although rare, information and collection campaigns on tetrodotoxin poisoning are, therefore, essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierrick Gouel
- Service des Urgences, Centre Hospitalier de Mayotte, 97600 Mamoudzou, France;
| | - Clémence Mahana iti Gatti
- Laboratoire des Biotoxines Marines, Institut Louis Malardé, UMR 241 EIO (Ifremer, ILM, IRD, UPF), 98713 Papeete, French Polynesia;
| | - Luc de Haro
- Clinical Pharmacology, Poison Control Center, St Marguerite Hospital, 13009 Marseille, France;
| | - Alice Liautaud
- Centre Antipoison de Paris, Hôpital Fernand Widal, 75010 Paris, France; (A.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Jérôme Langrand
- Centre Antipoison de Paris, Hôpital Fernand Widal, 75010 Paris, France; (A.L.); (J.L.)
| | - Denis Boucaud-Maitre
- Department of Research an Biostatistics, University Hospital of Guadeloupe, LAMIA (EA4540) French West Indies University, 97159 Pointe-à-Pitre, France
- Correspondence:
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10
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Identification of novel paralytic shellfish toxin binding protein via homology modeling and molecular docking. Toxicon 2022; 211:61-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2022.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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11
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Concentrations of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and Its Analogue 4,9-Anhydro TTX in Different Tissues of the Silver-Cheeked Pufferfish (Lagocephalus sceleratus, Gmelin, 1789) Caught in the South-Eastern Mediterranean Sea, Lebanon. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020123. [PMID: 35202150 PMCID: PMC8877804 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Pufferfishes are among the best-known marine organisms that accumulate marine biotoxins such as Tetrodotoxin (TTX). In the Mediterranean Sea, the silver-cheeked toadfish Lagocephalus sceleratus is the most reported TTX-bearer, causing many fatal and non-fatal cases. In Lebanon, no previous studies have measured TTX levels although the possibility of TTX-poisoning is high since L. sceleratus is caught in different sizes and can be mistaken with other small fishes. Hence, this study reports TTX and its analogue 4,9-anhydro TTX in L. sceleratus collected from Lebanese waters in the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. The results show that TTX concentrations in fish tissues varied between 0.10 and 252.97 µg/g, while those of 4,9-anhydro TTX oscillated between 0.01 and 43.01 µg/g. Internal organs of L. sceleratus were the most toxic parts of its body, with the highest TTX levels found in gonads (mainly ovaries) and liver, followed by the muscles and skin with concentrations always exceeding the safety level. Toxicity fluctuations of L. sceleratus, its expansion, ecological and economic effects were also elucidated. Based on the present findings, it has been confirmed that L. sceleratus constitutes a health, ecological and economic risks, and therefore its trade in seafood markets should be banned to avoid any potential intoxication.
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12
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Katikou P, Gokbulut C, Kosker AR, Campàs M, Ozogul F. An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010047. [PMID: 35049902 PMCID: PMC8780202 DOI: 10.3390/md20010047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
| | - Cengiz Gokbulut
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Balikesir University, Balikesir 10145, Turkey;
| | - Ali Rıza Kosker
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
| | - Mònica Campàs
- IRTA, Ctra Poble Nou km 5.5, 43540 Sant Carles de la Ràpita, Spain;
| | - Fatih Ozogul
- Department of Seafood Processing Technology, Faculty of Fisheries, Cukurova University, Adana 01330, Turkey;
- Correspondence: (P.K.); (F.O.)
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13
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Antonelli P, Salerno B, Bordin P, Peruzzo A, Orsini M, Arcangeli G, Barco L, Losasso C. Tetrodotoxin in live bivalve mollusks from Europe: Is it to be considered an emerging concern for food safety? Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 21:719-737. [PMID: 34954887 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxins (TTXs) are a group of potent neurotoxins named after the Tetraodontidae fish family (pufferfish). TTXs have been reported in several animal taxa, both terrestrial and marine. The ingestion of TTX-contaminated flesh can cause serious neurotoxic symptomatology and can eventually lead to death. Traditionally, TTXs have been associated with Asian countries, in particular with pufferfish consumption. However, they have also been reported in bivalve mollusks farmed in the Pacific area and, recently, in European seas. In Europe, different countries have reported TTXs, especially those bordering the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, in 2017 the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) released an opinion with reference to TTX present in marine gastropods and bivalves, proposing a safety limit of 44 µg/kg TTXs in shellfish meat, below which no adverse effects should be observed in humans. Nevertheless, this limit has been exceeded on many occasions in European shellfish and, while for bivalves there have been no registered human intoxications, that is not the case for marine gastropods. However, TTXs have not yet been included in the list of marine biotoxins officially monitored in live bivalve mollusks within the European Union (EU). Thus, the aims of this manuscript are to discuss the increasing occurrence of TTXs in live bivalve mollusks from European sea waters, to acknowledge the still ongoing knowledge gaps that should be covered and to stimulate constructive debate on the eventuality of adopting a shared regulatory context, at least in the EU, for monitoring and managing this potential threat to food safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Antonelli
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Barbara Salerno
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Paola Bordin
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Arianna Peruzzo
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Orsini
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Arcangeli
- Specialistic Aquatic Animal Health Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Lisa Barco
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Carmen Losasso
- Microbial Ecology and Microrganisms Genomics Laboratory, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università, Legnaro, Italy
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14
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Costa PR, Giráldez J, Rodrigues SM, Leão JM, Pinto E, Soliño L, Gago-Martínez A. High Levels of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) in Trumpet Shell Charonia lampas from the Portuguese Coast. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:250. [PMID: 33807311 PMCID: PMC8066793 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13040250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin, considered an emerging toxin in Europe where recently a safety limit of 44 µg TTX kg-1 was recommended by authorities. In this study, three specimens of the large gastropod trumpet shell Charonia lampas bought in a market in south Portugal were analyzed using a neuroblastoma cell (N2a) based assay and by LC-MS/MS. N2a toxicity was observed in the viscera of two individuals analyzed and LC-MS/MS showed very high concentrations of TTX (42.1 mg kg-1) and 4,9-anhydroTTX (56.3 mg kg-1). A third compound with m/z 318 and structurally related with TTX was observed. In the edible portion, i.e., the muscle, toxin levels were below the EFSA recommended limit. This study shows that trumpet shell marine snails are seafood species that may reach the markets containing low TTX levels in the edible portion but containing very high levels of TTX in non-edible portion raising concerns regarding food safety if a proper evisceration is not carried out by consumers. These results highlight the need for better understanding TTX variability in this gastropod species, which is critical to developing a proper legal framework for resources management ensuring seafood safety, and the introduction of these gastropods in the markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Reis Costa
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal; (S.M.R.); (E.P.); (L.S.)
- CCMAR—Center of Marine Sciences, Campus of Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Jorge Giráldez
- Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO), Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Campus Universitario de Vigo, University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (J.G.); (J.M.L.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Susana Margarida Rodrigues
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal; (S.M.R.); (E.P.); (L.S.)
| | - José Manuel Leão
- Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO), Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Campus Universitario de Vigo, University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (J.G.); (J.M.L.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Estefanía Pinto
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal; (S.M.R.); (E.P.); (L.S.)
| | - Lucía Soliño
- IPMA—Portuguese Institute of the Sea and Atmosphere, Av. Brasília, 1449-006 Lisbon, Portugal; (S.M.R.); (E.P.); (L.S.)
- CCMAR—Center of Marine Sciences, Campus of Gambelas, University of Algarve, 8005-139 Faro, Portugal
| | - Ana Gago-Martínez
- Biomedical Research Center (CINBIO), Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Campus Universitario de Vigo, University of Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain; (J.G.); (J.M.L.); (A.G.-M.)
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15
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Dhanji-Rapkova M, Turner AD, Baker-Austin C, Huggett JF, Ritchie JM. Distribution of Tetrodotoxin in Pacific Oysters ( Crassostrea gigas). Mar Drugs 2021; 19:md19020084. [PMID: 33540777 PMCID: PMC7913107 DOI: 10.3390/md19020084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A potent and heat-stable tetrodotoxin (TTX) has been found to accumulate in various marine bivalve species, including Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas), raising a food safety concern. While several studies on geographical occurrence of TTX have been conducted, there is a lack of knowledge about the distribution of the toxin within and between bivalves. We, therefore, measured TTX in the whole flesh, mantle, gills, labial palps, digestive gland, adductor muscle and intravalvular fluid of C. gigas using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Weekly monitoring during summer months revealed the highest TTX concentrations in the digestive gland (up to 242 µg/kg), significantly higher than in other oyster tissues. Intra-population variability of TTX, measured in the whole flesh of each of twenty animals, reached 46% and 32% in the two separate batches, respectively. In addition, an inter-population study was conducted to compare TTX levels at four locations within the oyster production area. TTX concentrations in the whole flesh varied significantly between some of these locations, which was unexplained by the differences in weight of flesh. This is the first study examining TTX distribution in C. gigas and the first confirmation of the preferential accumulation of TTX in oyster digestive gland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- Correspondence: (M.D.-R.); (J.M.R.)
| | - Andrew D. Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
| | - Craig Baker-Austin
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth DT4 8UB, UK; (A.D.T.); (C.B.-A.)
| | - Jim F. Huggett
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- National Measurement Laboratory, LGC, Queens Rd, Teddington TW11 0LY, UK
| | - Jennifer M. Ritchie
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford GU2 7XH, UK;
- Correspondence: (M.D.-R.); (J.M.R.)
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16
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First Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Bivalves and Gastropods from the French Mainland Coasts. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12090599. [PMID: 32947992 PMCID: PMC7551754 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12090599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In 2015, tetrodotoxins (TTXs) were considered a potential threat in Europe since several studies had shown the presence of these toxins in European bivalve molluscs. In this study, we investigated the occurrence of TTXs in 127 bivalve samples (mussels and oysters) and in 66 gastropod samples (whelks) collected all along the French mainland coasts in 2017 and 2018. Analyses were carried out after optimization and in-house validation of a performing hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography associated with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS) method. The concentration set by European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) not expected to result in adverse effects (44 µg TTX equivalent/kg) was never exceeded, but TTX was detected in three mussel samples and one whelk sample (1.7-11.2 µg/kg). The tissue distribution of TTX in this whelk sample showed higher concentrations in the digestive gland, stomach and gonads (7.4 µg TTX/kg) than in the rest of the whelk tissues (below the limit of detection of 1.7 µg TTX/kg). This is the first study to report the detection of TTX in French molluscs.
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17
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Boente-Juncal A, Otero P, Rodríguez I, Camiña M, Rodriguez-Vieytes M, Vale C, Botana LM. Oral Chronic Toxicity of the Safe Tetrodotoxin Dose Proposed by the European Food Safety Authority and Its Additive Effect with Saxitoxin. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E312. [PMID: 32397553 PMCID: PMC7291010 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent natural toxin causative of human food intoxications that shares its mechanism of action with the paralytic shellfish toxin saxitoxin (STX). Both toxins act as potent blockers of voltage-gated sodium channels. Although human intoxications by TTX were initially described in Japan, nowadays increasing concern about the regulation of this toxin in Europe has emerged due to its detection in fish and mollusks captured in European waters. Currently, TTX is only regularly monitored in Dutch fishery products. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established a safety level of 44 µg/kg TTX as the amount of toxin that did not cause adverse effects in humans. This level was extrapolated considering initial data on its acute oral toxicity and EFSA remarked the need for chronic toxicity studies to further reduce the uncertainty of future toxin regulations. Thus, in this work, we evaluated the oral chronic toxicity of TTX using the safety levels initially recommended by EFSA in order to exclude potential human health risks associated with the worldwide expanding presence of TTX. Using internationally recommended guidelines for the assessment of oral chronic toxicity, the data provided here support the proposed safety level for TTX as low enough to prevent human adverse effects of TTX even after chronic daily exposure to the toxin. However, the combination of TTX with STX at doses above the maximal exposure level of 5.3 µg/kg body weight derived by EFSA increased the lethality of TTX, thus confirming that both TTX and paralytic shellfish toxins should be taken into account to assess human health risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Boente-Juncal
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Paz Otero
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Inés Rodríguez
- Laboratorios Cifga, Benigno Rivera, 56, 27003 Lugo, Spain;
| | - Mercedes Camiña
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (M.C.); (M.R.-V.)
| | - Mercedes Rodriguez-Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (M.C.); (M.R.-V.)
| | - Carmen Vale
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
| | - Luis M. Botana
- Laboratorio de Farmacología, Farmacia e Tecnoloxía Farmacéutica, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Facultad de Veterinaria, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain; (A.B.-J.); (P.O.)
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18
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Zhang X, Zong J, Chen S, Li M, Lu Y, Wang R, Xu H. Accumulation and Elimination of Tetrodotoxin in the Pufferfish Takifugu obscurus by Dietary Administration of the Wild Toxic Gastropod Nassarius semiplicata. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12050278. [PMID: 32344936 PMCID: PMC7290894 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12050278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate pufferfish accumulation, elimination, and distribution of tetrodotoxin (TTX), Takifugu obscurus was fed with wild TTX-containing gastropod Nassarius semiplicata to simulate the natural food chain. Three-month-old non-poisonous T. obscurus was fed with wild toxic N. semiplicata at three exposure dose for 28 days, and later, with toxin-free food until day 67. Three fish individuals from each treatment were sampled, and the distribution of TTX in different tissues was measured. The results showed that the accumulation ratio of TTX in the three exposure dose groups ranged from 35.76% to 40.20%. The accumulation ratio in the skin and liver was the highest amongst all tissues, accounting for more than 85% of the total TTX, whereas that in the kidney and gallbladder was the lowest (0.11–0.78%). Studies on the kinetic of TTX accumulation and elimination revealed that the skin was the tissue with the highest accumulation speed constant (8.06), while the liver, kidney, and intestinal tract showed the highest speed of TTX elimination. The time required for TTX reduction to reach the safety limit could be predicted by using standard elimination equations. Qualitative analysis by UPLC-MS/MS revealed the occurrence of seven TTX derivatives in T. obscurus; of these TTX, 5-deoxy TTX, 11-deoxy TTX, 4,9-anhydro TTX were found in all tested tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Zhang
- Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Quality Safety, Marine Fisheries Research Institute of Zhejiang, Zhoushan 316100, China; (X.Z.); (S.C.)
- Zhejiang Province Key Lab of Mariculture & Enhancement, Zhoushan 316100, China
| | - Jingjing Zong
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; (J.Z.); (Y.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Si Chen
- Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Quality Safety, Marine Fisheries Research Institute of Zhejiang, Zhoushan 316100, China; (X.Z.); (S.C.)
- Zhejiang Province Key Lab of Mariculture & Enhancement, Zhoushan 316100, China
| | - Menglong Li
- Quality and Standard Research Center, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing 100141, China;
| | - Yibo Lu
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; (J.Z.); (Y.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Ruirui Wang
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; (J.Z.); (Y.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Hanxiang Xu
- Laboratory of Aquatic Product Processing and Quality Safety, Marine Fisheries Research Institute of Zhejiang, Zhoushan 316100, China; (X.Z.); (S.C.)
- School of Food and Pharmacy, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; (J.Z.); (Y.L.); (R.W.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-0580-2299-882
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19
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Madejska A, Michalski M, Osek J. Marine Tetrodotoxin as a Risk for Human Health. J Vet Res 2019; 63:579-586. [PMID: 31934670 PMCID: PMC6950440 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2019-0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a toxin mainly occurring naturally in contaminated puffer fish, which are a culinary delicacy in Japan. It is also detected in various marine organisms like globefish, starfish, sunfish, stars, frogs, crabs, snails, Australian blue-ringed octopuses, and bivalve molluscs. TTX is produced by marine bacteria that are consumed mainly by fish of the Tetraodontidae family and other aquatic animals. TTX poisoning through consuming marine snails has recently begun to occur over a wider geographical extent through Taiwan, China, and Europe. This neurotoxin causes food intoxication and poses an acute risk to public health. The aim of this review is to present the most recent information about TTX and its analogues with particular regard to toxicity, methods of analysis, and risk to humans of exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Madejska
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Mirosław Michalski
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
| | - Jacek Osek
- Department of Hygiene of Food of Animal Origin National Veterinary Research Institute, 24-100 Puławy, Poland
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20
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Guardone L, Maneschi A, Meucci V, Gasperetti L, Nucera D, Armani A. A Global Retrospective Study on Human Cases of Tetrodotoxin (TTX) Poisoning after Seafood Consumption. FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1669162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Guardone
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Andrea Maneschi
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Valentina Meucci
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Laura Gasperetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale Lazio e Toscana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Daniele Nucera
- Department of Agriculture, Forest and Food Science, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Andrea Armani
- FishLab, Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
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21
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Alves RN, Rambla-Alegre M, Braga AC, Maulvault AL, Barbosa V, Campàs M, Reverté L, Flores C, Caixach J, Kilcoyne J, Costa PR, Diogène J, Marques A. Bioaccessibility of lipophilic and hydrophilic marine biotoxins in seafood: An in vitro digestion approach. Food Chem Toxicol 2019; 129:153-161. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2019.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 04/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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22
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Katikou P. Public Health Risks Associated with Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in European Waters: Recent Advances after The EFSA Scientific Opinion. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E240. [PMID: 31035492 PMCID: PMC6562576 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11050240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2019] [Revised: 04/20/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are naturally occurring toxins responsible worldwide for human intoxication cases and fatalities, mainly associated with pufferfish consumption. In the last decade, TTXs were detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. As TTXs are not regulated or monitored at EU level, their unexpected occurrence in shellfish raised concerns as a food safety hazard and revealed the necessity of a thorough assessment on the public health risks associated with their presence. For this reason, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) was requested by the European Commission to provide a scientific opinion, finally adopted in March 2017, according to which a provisional concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. The EFSA expert panel, however, recognized a number of shortcomings and uncertainties related to the unavailability of sufficient scientific data and provided relevant recommendations for future research to overcome these data gaps identified in order to further refine the risk assessment on TTXs. The present review aims to summarize the knowledge obtained towards addressing these recommendations in the two years following publication of the EFSA opinion, at the same time highlighting the points requiring further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panagiota Katikou
- Ministry of Rural Development and Food, Directorate General of Rural Development, Directorate of Research, Innovation and Education, Hapsa & Karatasou 1, 54626 Thessaloniki, Greece.
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23
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Murk AJ, Nicolas J, Smulders FJ, Bürk C, Gerssen A. Marine biotoxins: types of poisoning, underlying mechanisms of action and risk management programmes. CHEMICAL HAZARDS IN FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN 2019. [DOI: 10.3920/978-90-8686-877-3_09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Albertinka J. Murk
- Department of Animal Sciences, Marine Animal Ecology group, Wageningen University and Research, P.O. Box 338, 6700 AH Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jonathan Nicolas
- 68300 Saint-Louis, France, formerly affiliated with Division of Toxicology, Wageningen University and Research Centre, the Netherlands
| | - Frans J.M. Smulders
- Institute of Meat Hygiene, Meat Technology and Food Science, Department of Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christine Bürk
- Milchwirstschaftliche Untersuchungs- und Versuchsanstalt (MUVA) Kempten, GmbH, Ignaz-Kiechle-Straße 20-22, 87437 Kempten (Allgäu), Germany
| | - Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 230, 6708 WB Wageningen, the Netherlands
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24
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Turner AD, Fenwick D, Powell A, Dhanji-Rapkova M, Ford C, Hatfield RG, Santos A, Martinez-Urtaza J, Bean TP, Baker-Austin C, Stebbing P. New Invasive Nemertean Species ( Cephalothrix Simula) in England with High Levels of Tetrodotoxin and a Microbiome Linked to Toxin Metabolism. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:E452. [PMID: 30453540 PMCID: PMC6266807 DOI: 10.3390/md16110452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2018] [Revised: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine nemertean Cephalothrix simula originates from the Pacific Ocean but in recent years has been discovered in northern Europe. The species has been associated with high levels of the marine neurotoxin Tetrodotoxin, traditionally associated with Pufferfish Poisoning. This study reports the first discovery of two organisms of C. simula in the UK, showing the geographical extent of this species is wider than originally described. Species identification was initially conducted morphologically, with confirmation by Cox 1 DNA sequencing. 16S gene sequencing enabled the taxonomic assignment of the microbiome, showing the prevalence of a large number of bacterial genera previously associated with TTX production including Alteromonas, Vibrio and Pseudomonas. LC-MS/MS analysis of the nemertean tissue revealed the presence of multiple analogues of TTX, dominated by the parent TTX, with a total toxin concentration quantified at 54 µg TTX per g of tissue. Pseudomonas luteola isolated from C. simula, together with Vibrio alginolyticus from the native nemertean Tubulanus annulatus, were cultured at low temperature and both found to contain TTX. Overall, this paper confirms the high toxicity of a newly discovered invasive nemertean species with links to toxin-producing marine bacteria and the potential risk to human safety. Further work is required to assess the geographical extent and toxicity range of C. simula along the UK coast in order to properly gauge the potential impacts on the environment and human safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | | | - Andy Powell
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Monika Dhanji-Rapkova
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Charlotte Ford
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Robert G Hatfield
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Andres Santos
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
- Laboratory of Applied and Molecular Biology, Avenida Alemania 0458, 4810296 Temuco, Chile.
- Scientific and Technological Bioresource Nucleus (BIOREN), Universidad de La Frontera, Avenida Francisco Salazar 01145, 4811230 Temuco, Chile.
| | - Jaime Martinez-Urtaza
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Tim P Bean
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Craig Baker-Austin
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Paul Stebbing
- Centre for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
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25
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Gerssen A, Bovee THF, Klijnstra MD, Poelman M, Portier L, Hoogenboom RLAP. First Report on the Occurrence of Tetrodotoxins in Bivalve Mollusks in The Netherlands. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E450. [PMID: 30388789 PMCID: PMC6265950 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2018] [Revised: 10/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is traditionally associated with seafood from tropical regions, but recently TTX was detected in bivalve mollusks in more temperate European waters. In The Netherlands it was therefore decided to monitor TTX in shellfish harvested from Dutch production areas. All shellfish production areas were monitored in 2015, 2016 and 2017. Samples were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). In total 1063 samples were investigated, and the highest concentrations were observed in 2016, i.e., 253 µg TTX/kg in oysters and 101 µg TTX/kg in mussels. No TTX analogues, with the exception of 4-epi-TTX in one single sample, were found and contaminated samples also showed positive results in the neuro-2a bioassay. The occurrence of TTX seems to be consistent over the last three years with the highest concentrations observed annually in late June. The causative organism and the reasons why specific Dutch production areas are affected while others are not, are still unclear. Initially in The Netherlands an action limit of 20 µg TTX/kg was used to ensure the safety of consumers (2016), but recently The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) established an acute reference dose, and based on a high portion size of consuming 400 g mussels, this dose was translated into a safe concentration of 44 µg TTX per kg for shellfish. This concentration is now used as an action limit and TTX is formally included in the Dutch shellfish monitoring program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjen Gerssen
- RIKILT, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Toine H F Bovee
- RIKILT, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Mirjam D Klijnstra
- RIKILT, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Marnix Poelman
- Wageningen Marine Research, Korringaweg 7, 4401NT Yerseke, The Netherlands.
| | - Liza Portier
- RIKILT, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Ron L A P Hoogenboom
- RIKILT, Wageningen University and Research, Akkermaalsbos 2, 6708WB Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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26
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Nicolas J, Hoogenboom RL, Hendriksen PJ, Bodero M, Bovee TF, Rietjens IM, Gerssen A. Marine biotoxins and associated outbreaks following seafood consumption: Prevention and surveillance in the 21st century. GLOBAL FOOD SECURITY-AGRICULTURE POLICY ECONOMICS AND ENVIRONMENT 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gfs.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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27
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Katikou P, Vlamis A. Tetrodotoxins: recent advances in analysis methods and prevalence in European waters. Curr Opin Food Sci 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cofs.2017.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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28
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Urinary Excretion of Tetrodotoxin Modeled in a Porcine Renal Proximal Tubule Epithelial Cell Line, LLC-PK₁. Mar Drugs 2017; 15:md15070225. [PMID: 28714912 PMCID: PMC5532667 DOI: 10.3390/md15070225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the urinary excretion of tetrodotoxin (TTX) modeled in a porcine renal proximal tubule epithelial cell line, LLC-PK₁. Time course profiles of TTX excretion and reabsorption across the cell monolayers at 37 °C showed that the amount of TTX transported increased linearly for 60 min. However, at 4 °C, the amount of TTX transported was approximately 20% of the value at 37 °C. These results indicate that TTX transport is both a transcellular and carrier-mediated process. Using a transport inhibition assay in which cell monolayers were incubated with 50 µM TTX and 5 mM of a transport inhibitor at 37 °C for 30 min, urinary excretion was significantly reduced by probenecid, tetraethylammonium (TEA), l-carnitine, and cimetidine, slightly reduced by p-aminohippuric acid (PAH), and unaffected by 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+), oxaliplatin, and cefalexin. Renal reabsorption was significantly reduced by PAH, but was unaffected by probenecid, TEA and l-carnitine. These findings indicate that TTX is primarily excreted by organic cation transporters (OCTs) and organic cation/carnitine transporters (OCTNs), partially transported by organic anion transporters (OATs) and multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs), and negligibly transported by multidrug and toxic compound extrusion transporters (MATEs).
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Knutsen HK, Alexander J, Barregård L, Bignami M, Brüschweiler B, Ceccatelli S, Cottrill B, Dinovi M, Edler L, Grasl-Kraupp B, Hogstrand C, Hoogenboom LR, Nebbia CS, Oswald IP, Rose M, Roudot AC, Schwerdtle T, Vleminckx C, Vollmer G, Wallace H, Arnich N, Benford D, Botana L, Viviani B, Arcella D, Binaglia M, Horvath Z, Steinkellner H, van Manen M, Petersen A. Risks for public health related to the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX) and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. EFSA J 2017; 15:e04752. [PMID: 32625458 PMCID: PMC7010203 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2017.4752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) and its analogues are produced by marine bacteria and have been detected in marine bivalves and gastropods from European waters. The European Commission asked EFSA for a scientific opinion on the risks to public health related to the presence of TTX and TTX analogues in marine bivalves and gastropods. The Panel on Contaminants in the Food Chain reviewed the available literature but did not find support for the minimum lethal dose for humans of 2 mg, mentioned in various reviews. Some human case reports describe serious effects at a dose of 0.2 mg, corresponding to 4 μg/kg body weight (bw). However, the uncertainties on the actual exposure in the studies preclude their use for derivation of an acute reference dose (ARfD). Instead, a group ARfD of 0.25 μg/kg bw, applying to TTX and its analogues, was derived based on a TTX dose of 25 μg/kg bw at which no apathy was observed in an acute oral study with mice, applying a standard uncertainty factor of 100. Estimated relative potencies for analogues are lower than that of TTX but are associated with a high degree of uncertainty. Based on the occurrence data submitted to EFSA and reported consumption days only, average and P95 exposures of 0.00-0.09 and 0.00-0.03 μg/kg bw, respectively, were calculated. Using a large portion size of 400 g bivalves and P95 occurrence levels of TTX, with exception of oysters, the exposure was below the group ARfD in all consumer groups. A concentration below 44 μg TTX equivalents/kg shellfish meat, based on a large portion size of 400 g, was considered not to result in adverse effects in humans. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS) methods are the most suitable for identification and quantification of TTX and its analogues, with LOQs between 1 and 25 μg/kg.
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Turner AD, Higgins C, Higman W, Hungerford J. Potential Threats Posed by Tetrodotoxins in UK Waters: Examination of Detection Methodology Used in Their Control. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:7357-76. [PMID: 26690455 PMCID: PMC4699243 DOI: 10.3390/md13127070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin is a neurotoxin responsible for many human fatalities, most commonly following the consumption of pufferfish. Whilst the source of the toxin has not been conclusively proven, it is thought to be associated with various species of marine bacteria. Whilst the toxins are well studied in fish and gastropods, in recent years, there have been a number of reports of tetrodotoxin occurring in bivalve shellfish, including those harvested from the UK and other parts of Europe. This paper reviews evidence concerning the prevalence of tetrodotoxins in the UK together with methodologies currently available for testing. Biological, biomolecular and chemical methods are reviewed, including recommendations for further work. With the recent development of quantitative chromatographic methods for these and other hydrophilic toxins, as well as the commercial availability of rapid testing kits, there are a number of options available to ensure consumers are protected against this threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew D Turner
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - Cowan Higgins
- Agri-food and Biosciences Institute (AFBI), Newforge Lane, Belfast BT9 5PX, UK.
| | - Wendy Higman
- Centre for Environment Fisheries and Aquaculture Science (Cefas), Barrack Road, The Nothe, Weymouth, Dorset DT4 8UB, UK.
| | - James Hungerford
- Pacific Laboratory Northwest, United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), 22201 23rd Dr, S.E., Bothell, WA 98021, USA.
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Tetrodotoxin, an Extremely Potent Marine Neurotoxin: Distribution, Toxicity, Origin and Therapeutical Uses. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6384-406. [PMID: 26492253 PMCID: PMC4626696 DOI: 10.3390/md13106384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/04/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin responsible for many human intoxications and fatalities each year. The origin of TTX is unknown, but in the pufferfish, it seems to be produced by endosymbiotic bacteria that often seem to be passed down the food chain. The ingestion of contaminated pufferfish, considered the most delicious fish in Japan, is the usual route of toxicity. This neurotoxin, reported as a threat to human health in Asian countries, has spread to the Pacific and Mediterranean, due to the increase of temperature waters worldwide. TTX, for which there is no known antidote, inhibits sodium channel producing heart failure in many cases and consequently death. In Japan, a regulatory limit of 2 mg eq TTX/kg was established, although the restaurant preparation of “fugu” is strictly controlled by law and only chefs qualified are allowed to prepare the fish. Due to its paralysis effect, this neurotoxin could be used in the medical field as an analgesic to treat some cancer pains.
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Panão I, Carrascosa C, Jaber JR, Raposo A. Puffer fish and its consumption: To eat or not to eat? FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2015.1075213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Liu SH, Tseng CY, Lin CC. Is neostigmine effective in severe pufferfish-associated tetrodotoxin poisoning? Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 53:13-21. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.980581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Campbell K, Barnes P, Haughey SA, Higgins C, Kawatsu K, Vasconcelos V, Elliott CT. Development and single laboratory validation of an optical biosensor assay for tetrodotoxin detection as a tool to combat emerging risks in European seafood. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:7753-63. [PMID: 23812877 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7106-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2013] [Revised: 05/07/2013] [Accepted: 05/31/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurotoxin emerging in European waters due to increasing ocean temperatures. Its detection in seafood is currently performed as a consequence of using the Association of Analytical Communities (AOAC) mouse bioassay (MBA) for paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins, but TTX is not monitored routinely in Europe. Due to ethical and performance-related issues associated with this bioassay, the European Commission has recently published directives extending procedures that may be used for official PSP control. An AOAC-accredited high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method has now been accepted by the European Union as a first action screening method for PSP toxins to replace the MBA. However, this AOAC HPLC method is not capable of detecting TTX, so this potent toxin would be undetected; thereby, a separate method of analysis is required. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) optical biosensor technology has been proven as a potential alternative screening method to detect PSP toxins in seafood. The addition of a similar SPR inhibition assay for TTX would complement the PSP assay in removing the MBA. The present report describes the development and single laboratory validation in accordance with AOAC and IUPAC guidelines of an SPR method to be used as a rapid screening tool to detect TTX in the sea snail Charonia lampas lampas, a species which has been implicated in 2008 in the first case of human TTX poisoning in Europe. As no current regulatory limits are set for TTX in Europe, single laboratory validation was undertaken using those for PSP toxins at 800 μg/kg. The decision limit (CCα) was 100 μg/kg, with the detection capability (CCβ) found to be ≤200 μg/kg. Repeatability and reproducibility were assessed at 200, 400, and 800 μg/kg and showed relative standard deviations of 8.3, 3.8, and 5.4% and 7.8, 8.3, and 3.7% for both parameters at each level, respectively. At these three respective levels, the recovery of the assay was 112, 98, and 99%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrina Campbell
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University, David Keir Building, Stranmillis Road, Belfast, BT9 5AG, UK,
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Otero P, Alfonso A, Alfonso C, Aráoz R, Molgó J, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. First direct fluorescence polarization assay for the detection and quantification of spirolides in mussel samples. Anal Chim Acta 2011; 701:200-8. [PMID: 21801889 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2011.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/23/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In 2009, we achieve the first inhibition FP assay to detect imine cyclic toxins. In the present paper we propose a new FP assay for direct quantify spirolides. This new method has resulted in significant improvement of sensitivity, rapidity and accessibility. In the method design, nicotinic acetylcholine receptor from Torpedo marmorata membranes labelled with a derivative of fluorescein was used. Spirolides, 13-desmethyl spirolide C (13-desMeC) and 13,19-didesmethyl spirolide C (13,19-didesMeC) were extracted and purified from cultures of the Alexandrium ostenfeldii dinoflagellate. Data showed the decrease of FP when toxin concentration was increased. Thus, a relationship between the FP units and the spirolides amount present in a sample was obtained. This direct assay is a reproducible, simple and very sensitive method with a detection limit about 25 nM for 13-desMeC and 150 nM for 13,19-didesMeC. The procedure was used to measure spirolides in mussel samples using an extraction and clean up protocol suitable for the FP assay. Results obtained show that this method is able to quantify 13-desMeC in the range of 50-350 μg kg(-1) meat. Other liposoluble toxins did not interfere with the assay, proving a specific method. Moreover, the matrix do not affect in the range of toxin concentrations that involving risk of spirolides intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paz Otero
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Universitario s/n, 27002 Lugo, Spain
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Wu YJ, Cheng YJ, Jen HC, Pan CH, Lin TC, Lin SJ, Hwang DF. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry determination of the toxicity and identification of fish species in a suspected tetrodotoxin fish poisoning. J Food Prot 2011; 74:789-95. [PMID: 21549050 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x.jfp-10-435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Suspected tetrodotoxin (TTX) poisoning was associated with eating unknown fish in April 2009 in Taiwan. After ingestion of the fish, symptoms of the victim included perioral paresthesia, nausea, vomiting, ataxia, weakness of all limbs, respiration failure, and death within several hours. The toxicity in the remaining fish was determined, with the mice exhibiting symptoms of neurotoxin poisoning. The implicated fish and deceased victim tissues were analyzed for TTX by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The urine, bile, cerebrospinal fluid (spinal cord), pleural effusion, and pericardial effusion of the victim contained TTX. In addition, the partial cytochrome b gene of the implicated fish was determined by PCR. The DNA sequence in the partial 465-bp cytochrome b gene identified the implicated fish as Chelonodon patoca (puffer fish). These results indicate that people should avoid eating unknown fish species from fish markets where harvested fish may include toxic species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Jung Wu
- Department of Food Science, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan
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Effects of tetrodotoxin on the mammalian cardiovascular system. Mar Drugs 2010; 8:741-62. [PMID: 20411124 PMCID: PMC2857368 DOI: 10.3390/md8030741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2010] [Revised: 02/11/2010] [Accepted: 03/18/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The human genome encodes nine functional voltage-gated Na+ channels. Three of them, namely Nav1.5, Nav1.8, and Nav1.9, are resistant to nanomolar concentrations of tetrodotoxin (TTX; IC50 ≥ 1 μM). The other isoforms, which are predominantly expressed in the skeletal muscle and nervous system, are highly sensitive to TTX (IC50 ~ 10 nM). During the last two decades, it has become evident that in addition to the major cardiac isoform Nav1.5, several of those TTX sensitive isoforms are expressed in the mammalian heart. Whereas immunohistochemical and electrophysiological methods demonstrated functional expression in various heart regions, the physiological importance of those isoforms for cardiac excitation in higher mammals is still debated. This review summarizes our knowledge on the systemic cardiovascular effects of TTX in animals and humans, with a special focus on cardiac excitation and performance at lower concentrations of this marine drug. Altogether, these data strongly suggest that TTX sensitive Na+ channels, detected more recently in various heart tissues, are not involved in excitation phenomena in the healthy adult heart of higher mammals.
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