Which factors influence farmers' intentions to adopt nutrient management planning?

Characteristics of water quality mitigation measures that lead to greater adoption on farms

Globally, agriculture is a significant pressure on water quality. While nutrient and sediment loss from agricultural land to water can be scientifically complex, mitigation measures primarily focus on reducing farm nutrient stocks or blocking loss pathways. The appropriateness of mitigation measures is dependent on the identification of specific context-related risks on individual farms. However, advisers also need to consider the likelihood of uptake of measures by farmers. Past research has looked at uptake of particular mitigation measures or a small range of measures. This research expands the literature with an analysis of uptake of a broad and diverse range of measures. Farm characteristics, farmer norms, knowledge required and costs (direct and indirect) associated with individual mitigation measures are investigated to identify factors that could influence greater adoption. Results show that alignment to farmer norms and lower specific costs were associated with high adoption rates. These results have implications for advisers in relation to the selection of measures most likely to be adopted by farmers, and also for policy-makers in relation to the need to incentivise the adoption of high-cost measures.

Social psychological factors drive farmers' adoption of environmental best management practices

Agriculture is a main driver of land-cover change globally resulting in decreased biodiversity, increased carbon emissions, and land desertification. Environmental best management practices reduce risk to the environment caused by agricultural operations. However, the adoption of environmental best management practices by farmers often is lower than what would be possible. While prior studies have investigated determinants of environmental best management practices, it is not well understood how social psychological drivers of various best management practices may be modified by contextual factors. To help close this knowledge gap, we conducted a large-scale survey of Ontario farmers investigating how social psychological factors and resource constraints combine to determine adoption of farm forests, riparian buffers and windbreaks, and how these relationships are modified by farmer demographics and farm characteristics. We analyzed survey responses of 490 farmers with structural equation modeling using the Theory of Planned Behavior as theoretical framework. Our results suggest that perceived benefits of environmental best management practices are of relatively low impact on best management practice adoption. Beliefs of a personal obligation for adoption and the perception of the capacity for adoption consistently were of higher impact, with lack of labor as main constraint. The relationships of perceived benefits and social norms with adoption were modified by farmer income, education, and age, as well as by the distance between a farm and the nearest settlement. However, the relationship of control beliefs with adoption was not affected by any contextual factors. We conclude that the improvement of programs in support of labor availability may have positive impacts on the adoption of the investigated environmental best management practices.

Investigating bottlenecks hampering the adoption of water quality-enhancing practices for sustainable land management in Ireland

The scaling of adopted measures on farms is often proposed however, the factors that inform non-adoption of advised measures are typically overlooked. Better understanding of these factors could offer important insights for overcoming these bottlenecks and therefore offer important potential with respect to addressing agri-environmental challenges. We investigated the factors hampering the adoption of sustainable land management practices advised by the main agricultural extension of Ireland. A large qualitative dataset (N = 760) containing farmers' reasons for rejection of advised practices was analysed to identify bottlenecks for adoption. Our research showed that rejection can be explained by different underlying reasons. While subsidies exist for the implementation of sustainable land management practices, incentives to implement are insufficient and costs remain the main barrier for the adoption of the sustainable land management practices. Additionally, land ownership challenges and the aging farming population hamper the adoption of sustainable land management practices. Next to an analysis of the reasons for rejection of all advised practices, we investigated three often advised sustainable land management practices in-depth: implementation of riparian buffer zones, preventing cattle access to watercourses and implementation of a nutrient management plan. The differences in barriers for adoption between these practices showed the need for nuanced communication in order to enhance uptake. In order to reach water quality targets through enhanced uptake of sustainable land management practice, advice should be framed and tailored to farmer objectives.

Intention to adopt improved indigenous chicken breeds among smallholder farmers in Machakos county, Kenya. Do socio-psychological factors matter?

Consumption of poultry meat, eggs, and other animal-sourced commodities has dramatically risen by almost 86 %, with the demand of indigenous chicken products almost doubling over the past few decades. In Kenya, poultry farmers prefer indigenous chicken (IC) due to their resilience to harsh climatic conditions, high feed conversion rates, delicious end products, ability to scavenge and potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions among other factors. Despite the high demand for poultry and its products, the gap between demand and production remains high. Poultry farmers try to keep pace with the demand by integrating the recommended improved IC breeds into their production system. Although there exists some understanding on the determinants of the farmers to adopt improved IC, still there is scanty information on how socio-psychological factors influence the intention to adoption improved IC among the farmers in Kenya. Thus, this study sought to investigate the determinants of intention to adopt improved IC while specially focusing on the role of socio-psychological factors. A total of 374 IC farmers in Machakos county were selected using a multistage sampling technique. Partial Least Square - Structural Equation Modelling (PLS-SEM) was employed to analyze the data. Results from descriptive statistics showed that approximately 90 % of IC farmers in the study area were aware of the improved indigenous chicken breeds. However, the adoption of the improved IC was below average (44.9 %). The path analysis results revealed that Subjective Norm (SN) was the main determinant of farmer's intention to adopt improved IC breeds, followed by Attitude (ATT) and Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC). The study recommends more emphasis to be given to psycho-social issues through well designed public and private interventions that will promote adoption of improved breeds among IC farmers.

Linking the uptake of best management practices on dairy farms to catchment water quality improvement over a 20-year period

Intensive land use, such as dairying, can impair water quality. Although many guidelines exist on how to mitigate the loss of dairy-associated contaminants from land to water through best management practices (BMPs), few datasets exist on the success of implementation on-farm. Five dairy-dominated catchments (from 598 to 2480 ha) in New Zealand were studied from 2001 to 2020. The first period, from 2001 to 2010, involved comprehensive "extension" advice to farmers consisting of workshops, stream water quality and flow monitoring, farm practice surveys, and identified solutions to address site-specific contaminant losses. In the second period (2011-2020), termed "post-extension", only water quality monitoring and farm practice surveys were continued. Of the water quality contaminants (including dissolved reactive phosphorus (DRP), total phosphorus (TP), ammoniacal-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrite-nitrogen [NNN], suspended sediment and E. coli), 83 % of water quality trend directions were either improving (n = 16) or showed no change (n = 9) during the extension period. Over the 20-year dataset, which included the post-extension period, 20 out of 30 contaminant-catchment combinations (67 %) were improving, but nine were degrading, dominated by NNN (n = 4), DRP (n = 2) and E. coli (n = 2). Abrupt decreases in contaminant concentrations, were correlated with on-farm practice changes mainly associated with transition from direct discharge of farm dairy shed effluent to waterways to land application, and the capture of effluent from off-paddock facilities (like stand off or feed pads). Best management practices reduced phosphorus (P) forms, E. coli and sediment concentrations. Increase in NNN concentrations was caused by transitioning from flood to spray irrigation and a commensurate increase in cow numbers and NNN leaching. These data indicate that extension advice and on-farm practice change have helped to improve overall water quality over time. Nevertheless, recent regulatory threshold values for some contaminant concentrations are not being met, meaning that more actions are required, over and above the BMPs implemented.

Integrating the norm activation model and theory of planned behaviour to investigate farmer pro-environmental behavioural intention

Sustainable agriculture requires cooperative and coordinated action across multiple sectors and policy domains. However, farmer-stakeholder behaviors and action remain pivotal to sustainable food system management in many rural development contexts. We assess farmer pro-environmental behavioral intention through the development and application of a novel integrated approach combining two dominant psychological theories of behavior change: the Norm Activation Model (NAM) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). We apply this framework to targeted research with potato growers of Kerman Province in southeastern Iran, using survey data (sample n = 381) analyzed through structural equation modeling (SEM). The integrated NAM-TPB model provides insight into both pro-social and self-interested motivations for farmer pro-environmental behavioral intention, with the model explaining 77% of total variance. We found that three variables, Awareness of Consequence (AC), Perceived Behavioral Control (PBC), and Subjective Norms (SN) were the strongest indicators of pro-environmental behavioral intention. We recommend therefore that agricultural extension and state-led farmer education should first emphasize awareness-raising of negative environmental impacts of current farming practices within training programs, and second, improve social learning amongst farmer communities through sustained farmer community engagement, thus "stabilizing" a social norm of environmental protection amongst peer networks of agricultural workers.

Farmers' adoption behavior of conservation tillage technology: a multidimensional heterogeneity perspective

Adopting conservation tillage technology can promote sustainable agriculture development. There have been many studies on all farmers' conservation tillage behaviors, but few studies are based on a farmer's multidimensional heterogeneity perspective. Given the background, we conduct an empirical evaluation using micro survey data from 819 households in the middle and upper reaches of the Yellow River Basin. This paper uses the entropy method to classify farm households into three types: economically dominant, resource dominant, and socially dominant. Furthermore, we use the Heckman sample selection model to discuss the factors that affect the adoption of conservation tillage technology by different types of farmers. The results show that land fragmentation degree can inhibit economically dominant farmers conservation tillage technology adoption behavior. Social relations can positively influence resource dominant farmers. The share of non-farm income will positively impact socially dominant farmers. This paper further proposes policy implications, based on the findings that different types of farmers have various factors influencing conservation tillage technology adoption behavior.

Farm size, farmers' perceptions and chemical fertilizer overuse in grain production: Evidence from maize farmers in northern China

China's agriculture is characterized by small-scale farms whose overuse of chemical fertilizers is widespread. This makes it a key challenge for China to sustainably feed its growing population. In this study, we investigate the role of farm size in maize production and how it relates to farmers' fertilizer application strategies. We use cross-sectional survey data of 774 maize-producing farms in northern China, and develop a conceptual framework that links farm production, on-farm resources, the socio-economic characteristics of the households and farmers' knowledge and perceptions as a whole. We use linear and logistic regression models to show that despite the recent declines in fertilizer application rates, excessive fertilizer use persists in maize cultivation in northern China. Farm size has a negative effect on chemical fertilizer use and a positive effect on maize yield. In addition, farmers on large farms achieve significantly higher knowledge scores in terms of fertilizer use and maize cultivation. They are also more likely to attend agricultural training and adopt scientific fertilizer use techniques. Increased farm size, participation in training, better farming knowledge, and having a family member as a village cadre are associated with farmers' decisions to reduce the use of conventional fertilizers. The key to achieving more sustainable grain production in China is to increase farm size, while enhancing the effectiveness of agricultural extension and promoting scientific fertilization techniques. Social networks within and between villages should also be utilized for knowledge transfer. In addition, cooperation between research institutions and fertilizer companies should be further emphasized to improve the accessibility of regionally adjusted formulated fertilizers.

Assessing psychological factors on farmers' intention to apply organic manure: an application of extended theory of planned behavior

Different from the previous studies on social and economic impacts, this study focused on the assessment of psychological factors on farmers' application of organic manure. We explored the psychological evaluation based on the extended theory of planned behavior (TPB), which consists of attitude (AT), perceived behavior control (PBC), subjective norm, moral norm (MN), environmental risk perception (ERP), and perceived policy effectiveness (PPE). Further, we explored the moderating effects of PPE. We studied 235 tea growers in China to verify the model and analyzed the psychological factors in their decisions regarding organic manure application. The results showed that by incorporating psychological factors, such as MN, ERP, and PPE, the extended TPB's ability to explain farmers' intention to apply organic manure increased by 6%. The results also confirmed that psychological factors (ERP, PPE, AT, PBC, and MN) positively influenced farmers' inclination to use organic manure. Finally, PPE was found to have a negative mediating effect on attitude and intention. Given the influence of these psychological factors (PBC, ERP, and PPE), we discovered that increasing the policy publicity, raising the policy subsidy, and promoting the popularization of sustainable agriculture and environmental awareness, are essential to encourage farmers' utilization of organic manure.

Drivers of Farmers’ Intention to Use the Digital Agricultural Management System: Integrating Theory of Planned Behavior and Behavioral Economics

China’s fishery industry has national and international relevance whose aquaculture production accounts for more than 60 percent of the world’s total aquaculture production. But the average amount of pesticides used per hectare in China is roughly five times of the world average. The abuse of chemical fertilizers and drugs has brought chronic, long-term, and cumulative harm to both human beings and environment. The digital agricultural management system should be adopted to reduce non-negligible environment pollution and the quality and safety risks of aquatic products. So, it is essential to understand the factors that may influence the adopting intention of this digital management approaches. The present study aimed to examine the adopting intention of farmers toward the digital agricultural management system using two theories–the theory of planned behavior (TPB) and the behavioral economics–as the research framework. The population was composed of farmers in the provinces of Guangdong province in south China of whom 219 farmers were sampled with stratified random sampling technique. Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data, and it was revealed that this research framework could potentially predict intention. And we observed that the two biased belief of availability bias and loss aversion bias can be the main predictive influence factors of responsible behaviors in adopting the digital agriculture management system, which highlights the importance of framing recommendations in terms of losses rather than gain may be more effective to increase farmers’ intention to adopt the digital system on their farms.

Envisioning the manureshed: Toward comprehensive integration of modern crop and animal production

The specialization and intensification of agriculture have produced incredible gains in productivity, quality, and availability of agricultural commodities but have resulted in the separation of crop and animal production. A by-product of this separation has been the accumulation of manure regions where animal production is concentrated. Enter the "manureshed," an organizing framework for integrating animal and crop production where budgeting of manure nutrients is used to strategically guide their recycling and reuse in agricultural production systems where manure resources are of highest value. To move beyond regional nutrient balance analyses into the transformational realm required to mitigate "wicked" manure problems, manureshed management requires recognition of the challenges to systematically reorganizing resource flows. In better integrating crop and livestock systems, manureshed management must account for the unique nature of managing manure nutrients within individual livestock industries, anticipate trade-offs in substituting manure for commercial fertilizer, promote technologies to refine manure, and engage extensive social networks across scales that range from the farmgate to nation and beyond.

Labor Endowment, Cultivated Land Fragmentation, and Ecological Farming Adoption Strategies among Farmers in Jiangxi Province, China

A deeper understanding of the factors that influence the ecological farming adoption strategies of farmers can help in developing effective adaptation measures to mitigate the degradation of cultivated land quality and ecological degradation. This study used a stratified random sampling technique to select 1488 households in Jiangxi Province, while the double-hurdle model was used to analyze the influence of labor endowments (LEs) and cultivated land fragmentation (CLF) on ecological farming decision-making. The results indicate that LEs and CLF play important roles in farmers’ decision-making with regard to ecological farming. To be more specific, the total household population and CLF have negative effects on adoption willingness, while the number of laborers has a positive effect. For the degree of adoption, the total household population has a negative effect, while the number of laborers and part-time employment have positive effects. In addition, farmers’ ecological farming behavior is also influenced by factors such as education, agricultural income, cooperatives, and agricultural subsidies. Overall, farmers have a high willingness to adopt ecological farming, but the degree of actual adoption is low. This is not conducive to the promotion of ecological farming techniques and the sustainable development of agriculture in China. The study proposes that the government should further improve financial investment and provide relevant technical services. In addition, a temporary work platform should be set up for farmers to encourage them to find other work during the agricultural low season.

Research on the Formation Mechanism of Individual Food Waste Behavior from the Perspective of Image Construction

The attention regarding individuals’ external appearance and social identity provides a unique perspective to reveal the cause of their behavior. This study explored the formation mechanism of individual food waste behavior in China from the perspective of appearance image construction and social image construction, especially considering the role of emotion, education level, and body mass index (BMI) in relationship transmission. This study collected data by questionnaire in 133 cities in 32 provinces of China. By using the methods of factor analysis, correlation analysis, and hierarchical regression analysis, the results show that individuals with high need for external appearance image (r = 0.242, p < 0.001) and social image construction (r = 0.31, p < 0.001) are more likely to waste food. In terms of transmission mechanisms, positive emotions (e.g., excitement) (β = 0.104~0.187, 95% confidence interval) and negative emotions (e.g., anxiety and disgust) (β = 0.08~0.177, 95% confidence interval) are the intermediary factors of image construction affecting food waste behavior, and emotional fluctuations can aggravate individuals’ food waste behavior. In terms of interaction effects, BMI significantly positively regulates the predictive effect of image construction on food waste behavior, while the level of education buffers this predictive effect. Finally, relevant policy suggestions are put forward to guide individuals to reduce food waste.

Do Agricultural Advisory Services in Europe Have the Capacity to Support the Transition to Healthy Soils?

The need to provide appropriate information, technical advice and facilitation to support farmers in transitioning towards healthy soils is increasingly clear, and the role of the Agricultural Advisory Services (AAS) in this is critical. However, the transformation of AAS (plurality, commercialisation, fragmentation, decentralisation) brings new challenges for delivering advice to support soil health management. This paper asks: To what extent do agricultural advisory services have the capacity to support the transition to healthy soils across Europe? Using the ‘best fit’ framework, analytical characteristics of the AAS relevant to the research question (governance structures, management, organisational and individual capacities) were identified. Analysis of 18 semi-structured expert interviews across 6 case study countries in Europe, selected to represent a range of contexts, was undertaken. Capacities to provide soil health management (SHM) advice are constrained by funding arrangements, limited adviser training and professional development, adviser motivations and professional cultures, all determined by institutional conditions. This has resulted in a narrowing down of access and content of soil advice and a reduced capacity to support the transition in farming to healthy soils. The extent to which emerging policy and market drivers incentivise enhanced capacities in AAS is an important area for future research.

Evaluating the roles of the farmer's cooperative for fostering environmentally friendly production technologies-a case of kiwi-fruit farmers in Meixian, China

The agricultural cooperative may significantly impact the adoption of environmentally friendly production technologies, which eventually help the farmers with better living standards and productivity. However, critical evaluation of how and to what extent the cooperative organization's participation leads the farmer's adoption of environmentally friendly technology (EFT) is relatively unclear. Thus, to critically explore the knowledge gap, the study evaluates the effects of cooperative participation towards adopting environmentally friendly production technologies based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB). The key variables used in the study have been extracted from an extensive literature investigation, while the empirical data has been collected from October to December 2020 from 292 kiwi-fruit farmers within the Shaanxi province of China. Simultaneously, the partial least square of structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) tools has been utilized to craft the final assessment. The factor loadings of all three latent variables have been statistically significant and interrelated for quantifying the proposed model. The statistically proven framework portrayed that cooperative organizations' participation positively impacts and shapes behavioral factors and facilitates the adoption of environmentally friendly production technologies. The study found the social structure like China, the impacts of cooperation could be crucial. As cooperative participation is an ample predictor for facilitating environmentally friendly technologies, the government should broaden the technical supports, and agricultural extension should also provide extended training for a smooth transition of the cooperatives.

Farming experience and farmers' adoption of low-carbon management practices: the case of soil testing and fertilizer recommendations in China

In response to global climate change, the Chinese Government has taken numerous measures to promote low-carbon management practices, but the overall adoption rate has been lower than expected. Empirical studies on the path dependence of farming experience, that is, long-standing planting concepts that will hinder farmers from adopting new technologies, have not been reported. Hence, to fill the research gaps, this paper uses survey data from 805 rice farmers in Zhejiang, Hubei, and Jiangxi provinces, China, to examine the impact of farming experience on the adoption of soil testing and fertilizer recommendations. The results show that farming experience significantly negatively affects the adoption of low-carbon practices, especially among farmers with low resource endowment. However, farmers, who make decisions based jointly on farming experience and social networks, are more likely to adopt low-carbon practices. This means that as long as farming experience is used reasonably, for example, by broadening the social network of farmers and urging them to form a decision-making method that comprehensively utilizes farming experience and social networks, it can also demonstrate value. Our findings contribute meaningfully to the development of efforts to promote the adoption of low-carbon management practices in China.

Economic and environmental nitrate leaching consequences of 4R nitrogen management practices including use of inhibitors for corn production in Ontario

Nitrate (NO₃^-) leaching has negative human and environmental health consequences that can be attributed to and mitigated by agricultural decision making. The purpose of this study is to examine the economic and environmental nitrogen (N) leaching reduction from 4R (Right Rate, Right Source, Right Time, Right Placement) agricultural management practices, including application methods, timing and rates, and the use of nitrification and urease inhibitors, for Ontario corn production. This study employed an integrated biophysical and economic GIS-based simulation model considering corn yields, prices, and production costs, and environmental losses, under historical weather scenarios, with NO₃^- leaching constraints. Reducing N application from historical to model optimized agronomic rates sharply lowered corn NO₃^- leaching from 75.3 to 24.9 kt N per year. Increasing model restrictions on corn NO₃^- leaching increased the use of broadcast and sidedress application methods compared to injection and lower overall production. They also increased the use of nitrification and urease inhibitors, which increased N use efficiency, because they allowed lower leaching from corn production, for a price. Leaching decreases from restrictions trade-off with ammonia (NH₃) volatilization increases, but there was no trade-off with nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions. This highlighted the importance of considering net N losses and production trade-offs by policy decision-makers when developing N loss reduction strategies.

Perceived Vulnerability and Propensity to Adopt Best Management Practices for Huanglongbing Disease of Citrus in California

Huanglongbing (HLB) disease of citrus, which is associated with the bacterium 'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus', has been confined to residential properties in Southern California 8 years after it was first detected in the state. To prevent the spread of HLB to commercial citrus groves, growers have been asked to adopt a portfolio of voluntary best management practices. This study evaluates the citrus industry's propensity to adopt these practices using surveys and a novel multivariate ordinal regression model. We estimate the impact on adoption of perceived vulnerability to HLB, intentions to stay informed and communicate about the disease and various socio-economic factors, and reveal what practices are most likely to be jointly adopted as an integrated approach to HLB. Survey participants were in favor of scouting and surveying for HLB symptoms, but they were reluctant to test trees, use early detection technologies (EDTs), and install barriers around citrus groves. Most practices were perceived as complementary, particularly visual inspections and some combinations of preventive practices with tests and EDTs. Participants who felt more vulnerable to HLB had a higher propensity to adopt several practices, as did those who intended to stay informed and communicate with the coordinators of the HLB control program, although this effect was modulated by the perceived vulnerability to HLB. Communication with neighbors and the size of citrus operations also influenced practice adoption. Based on these results, we provide recommendations for outreach about HLB management in California and suggest future directions for research about the adoption of plant disease management practices.[Formula: see text] Copyright © 2021 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Measurement of total factor productivity of green agriculture in China: Analysis of the regional differences based on China

China's agricultural economy is developing rapidly, but the unbalanced regional development is still a key issue that needs to be discussed today. By studying the total factor productivity of green agriculture and its factors, this paper analyzes the regional differences in time and space changes between the eastern, central and western parts of China. In this paper, the total factor productivity of green agriculture is calculated and decomposed by Metafrontier Malmquist-Luenberger index based on directional distance function. The results are as follows: First, the total factor productivity level of green agriculture in China is increasing year by year, but the overall level is still at a low level and has greater volatility; Second, although the total factor productivity of green agriculture shows an upward trend, the three regions show a downward trend in turn, which has great differences; Third, there are obvious differences in technological efficiency, optimal production potential and technological gap between the eastern, central and western regions, and there are great differences in productivity among regions and provinces. Based on the results, this paper puts forward policy recommendations, according to the regional heterogeneity, from a number of angles to rely on the joint efforts of many parties to improve the level of total factor productivity of green agriculture.

Organic Nutrient Source Allocation and Use in Smallholder Farming Communities: What Are We Missing?

Organic nutrient sources (ONS) are managed as a key resource by smallholder farmers to maintain the productivity of soils. Recycling of ONS by applying them to soils is a globally dominant strategy of ecological nutrient management. Understanding how ONS produced on-farm are allocated and what drives farmer decision making around their use is critical for sustainable nutrient management in smallholder agroecosystems. Using focus group discussions and a survey of 184 farming households, we studied socio-economic, socio-cultural, and environmental drivers of ONS allocation and use at the farm scale in three contrasting agroecological zones of western Kenya. Farm typologies of ONS management were also developed using cluster analysis based on resource endowment and the connectedness of farmers, management norms, and interaction with extension. Our findings suggest that the more resource endowed a farmer is, the more ONS are allocated to the main plot within the farm. We also observed that farmers preferred allocating more resources to plots that were considered more fertile. Land tenure had an important influence, in that main plots not owned by farmers were more likely to retain ONS such as crop residues. Management of residues is dependent on farmer gender, for instance, female farmers tended to burn legume residues in particular, which is notable since these higher quality residues are often considered key to sustainable soil nutrient management. Farm typologies featured different allocation patterns of ONS and were associated with resource endowment and farmer networks, including external ties to extension agents and internal ties to other farmers. Finally, there was a strong overarching influence of agroecological zone that often escapes characterization on the allocation of ONS. As research and development organizations continue to engage with smallholder farmers to reduce the burden of global food insecurity, the insights gained by this research will allow better anticipation of drivers and obstacles to improved nutrient management in these farming landscapes and communities.

Do awareness-focussed approaches to mitigating diffuse pollution work? A case study using behavioural and water quality evidence

Efforts to tackle diffuse water pollution from agriculture are increasingly focusing on improving farmers' awareness under the expectation that this would contribute to adoption of best management practices (BMPs) and, in turn, result in water quality improvements. To date, however, no study has explored the full awareness-behaviour-water quality pathway; with previous studies having mostly addressed the awareness-behaviour link relying on disciplinary approaches. Using an interdisciplinary approach, we investigate whether awareness-focussed approaches to mitigating diffuse water pollution from agriculture indeed result in water quality improvement, addressing the pathway in full. We worked with Dŵr Cymru Welsh Water (a water and waste utility company in the UK) on a pesticide pollution intervention programme, referred to as "weed wiper trial". The main goal of the trial was to raise farmers' awareness regarding pesticide management practices and to promote uptake of BMPs to tackle the rising concentrations of the pesticide MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid) in raw water in three catchments in Wales. Using factorial analysis of variance, we analysed MCPA concentrations from 2006 to 2019 in the three targeted catchments and in three control catchments. This was followed by semi-structured in-depth interviews with institutional stakeholders and farmers with varying degrees of exposure to the weed wiper trial. Results show that MCPA concentration for both targeted and control catchments had reduced after the implementation of the weed wiper trial. However, the decline was significantly larger (F(1) = 6.551, p < 0.05, n = 3077, Partial eta-squared (ηp²) = 0.002) for the targeted catchments (mean = 45.2%) compared to the control catchments (mean = 10.9%). Results from the stakeholder interviews indicate that improved awareness contributed to changes in farmers' behaviour and that these can be related to the water quality improvements reflected by the decline in MCPA concentration. Alongside awareness, other psychosocial, economic, agronomic factors, catchment and weather conditions also influenced farmer's ability to implement BMPs and thus overall water quality improvements.

Nitrogen Fertilization. A Review of the Risks Associated with the Inefficiency of Its Use and Policy Responses

Nitrogen (N) is a key input to food production. Nearly half of N fertilizer input is not used by crops and is lost into the environment via emission of gases or by polluting water bodies. It is essential to achieve production levels, which enable global food security, without compromising environmental security. The N pollution level expected by 2050 is projected to be 150% higher than in 2010, with the agricultural sector accounting for 60% of this increase. In this paper, we review the status of the pollution from N fertilizers worldwide and make recommendations to address the situation. The analysis reviews the relationship between N fertilizer use, N use efficiency, no-point pollution, the role of farmer management practices, and policy approaches to address diffuse pollution caused by N fertilization. Several studies show a lack of information as one of the main hurdles to achieve changes in habits. The objective of this study is to highlight the gravity of the current global non-point pollution as well as the need for a communication effort to make farmers aware of the relationship between their activity and N pollution and, therefore, the importance of their fertilizer management practices.

Adoption of Agroforestry in Northwest Viet Nam: What Roles Do Social and Cultural Norms Play?

This article presents research about the influences of social and cultural norms on the adoption of agroforestry in the northwest mountainous region of Viet Nam. The farming systems practiced by various ethnic groups in the northwest mainly occur on sloping land, which extends over 70% of the land area in the region. Decades of intensive monoculture of annual crops has resulted in severe soil erosion, contributing to soil degradation and decline in crop yields. Integrating agroforestry practices on sloping land has the potential to halt and reverse soil degradation and improve local livelihoods, but its adoption is conditioned by the diverse social and cultural norms of different ethnic groups. This research applies knowledge-based system methods in order to understand local opportunities, preferences, and constraints influencing the adoption of agroforestry practices, using a purposive, gender-balanced sample of sixty farmers from six villages across three provinces in the northwest region comprising people from Kinh, Thai and H’mong ethnic groups. Our results show that although farmers from all groups are aware of the economic and ecological benefits of trees for soil conservation in general, they have different perceptions about the benefits of particular agroforestry practices. Behavioural norms controlling agroforestry adoption vary amongst ethnic groups, and farmers’ individual social and cultural preferences influence their aspirations and adoption decisions. We conclude that developing appropriate agricultural interventions in a culturally rich environment such as northwest Viet Nam requires understanding of the context-specific needs and interests of socially and culturally disaggregated populations. Policies supporting agroforestry are more likely to contribute to more sustainable livelihoods and ecological benefits where they are tailored to the requirements of different ethnic groups.

Unravelling Belgian Blue cattle farmers' adoption intention towards diagnostic tools: Integrating insights from behavioural economics and socio-cognitive theories

Macrocyclic lactone resistance in Psoroptes ovis mites, causing psoroptic mange, is emerging in beef cattle. Therefore, diagnostic tools that can indicate macrocyclic lactone resistance should be implemented at farms in order to control these parasitic infections and slow down emerging resistance. Unfortunately, the adoption of such tools remains relatively poor. This study explores which beliefs, and behavioural biases that misconstrue these beliefs, underlie farmers' adoption intention. Five semi-structured focus groups were conducted with Belgian Blue cattle farmers (n = 38). Inductive analysis revealed that farmers' positive attitudes towards acaricides use and risk perception towards acaricide resistance made them rather reluctant to implement diagnostic tools. In addition, farmers' susceptibility to acaricide resistance occurring on their farm was weakened by the optimism and availability bias. Deductive analysis revealed that economic reasons, usefulness of the diagnostic tool and contribution to animal wellbeing motivated farmers to adopt such tools (i.e., behavioural beliefs). However, the loss aversion and time discounting bias weakened farmers' beliefs related to economic reasons. The veterinarian was seen as the responsible actor for implementing diagnostic tools, while colleague-farmers' opinion related to the diagnostic tool was also valued (i.e., normative beliefs). The latter belief was strengthened by the bandwagon-effect bias. Farmers' beliefs about economic costs related to the diagnostic tool tended to hinder adoption intention, while the veterinarian's assistance motivated farmers to implement such tools (i.e., control beliefs). The loss aversion bias also strengthened farmers' control beliefs related to the diagnostic tools' perceived costs. As such, this article provides more insights into the (ir)rational factors shaping farmers' intention to adopt diagnostic tools. These insights might help animal health organisations to design communication strategies to stimulate the adoption of diagnostic tools on beef cattle farms.

Social-psychological determinants of farmer intention to adopt nutrient best management practices: Implications for resilient adaptation to climate change

Successful adaptation to global climate change and enhancement of agricultural watersheds' resilience requires widespread use of Nutrient Best Management Practices (NBMPs) by farms of all sizes. In the US, adoption of many NBMP practices is voluntary and insufficient to achieve local and downstream conservation objectives. Despite evidence that both social-psychological factors and socio-economic factors influence farmer decision-making, very few studies of farmers' decision-making related to NBMP adoption combine these two factor groups in a theoretically rigorous way. To better understand farmers' management decisions, we test the social-psychological Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to determine the relative influence of attitudes, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioral control on adoption of nine NBMPs. A survey was designed by the research team and implemented by the U.S. Department of Agriculture-National Agricultural Statistics Service (USDA-NASS) in 2013, and replicated in 2016, on a stratified sample of 129 farmers (including panel data on 56 farmers). Farmers were located in the Missisquoi, and Lamoille River watersheds of the Lake Champlain Basin in the Northeast region of the United States. Survey responses revealed variation in past adoption of NBMPs was sensitive to practice type and farm size. We developed nine weighted structural equation models to test endogenous (social-psychological) and exogenous (policy, economic and demographic) predictors of farmer intention to adopt NBMPs. We found that perceived behavioral control had the largest effect size and strongest statistical significance on the farmers' expressed intentions to adopt NBMPs in the future. For a subset of NBMPs, perceived social norms and farmer attitudes toward these NBMPs were each also significant drivers of intention to adopt individual practices. Among the exogenous variables, we found that large farm size, college education, and having a conservation easement all had a positive influence on farmers' intention to adopt NBMPs. This study suggests that for widespread adoption of NBMPs, environmental managers, policy makers, and program developers should be attentive to farmers' perceived behavioral control, and support the design and execution of outreach and technical assistance programs that build on drivers of farmers' decision making.

Short communication: Socio-psychological factors influencing dairy farmers' intention to adopt high-grain feeding in Brazil

This study aimed to apply the theory of planned behavior to determine the effects of attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms on the intention of dairy farmers toward high-grain feeding. Quantitative data were collected through interviews with 150 dairy farmers in Paraná, Brazil. Partial least squares structural equation modeling was used to analyze the data. We observed that farmers with a positive perception of grain feeding (attitude) and a positive perception of their ability to increase the use of grains (perceived behavioral control) had higher intention to increase grain feeding. Social pressure (subjective norm) had no effect on the intention to grain feed. These results can contribute to the development of public strategies and policies that encourage the use of high-grain diets in dairy farms.

The Complex Pathway towards Farm-Level Sustainable Intensification: An Exploratory Network Analysis of Stakeholders’ Knowledge and Perception

Farm-level sustainable intensification of agriculture (SIA) has become an important concept to ensuring food security while minimising negative externalities. However, progress towards its achievement is often constrained by the different perceptions and goals of various stakeholders that affect farm management decisions. This study examines farm-level SIA as a dynamic system with interactive components that are determined by the interests of the stakeholders involved. A systems thinking approach was used to identify and describe the pathways towards farm-level SIA across the three main pillars of sustainability. An explanatory network analysis of fuzzy cognitive maps (FCMs) that were collectively created by representative groups of farmers, farm advisors and policy makers was performed. The study shows that SIA is a complex dynamic system, affected by cognitive beliefs and particular knowledge within stakeholder groups. The study concludes that, although farm-level SIA is a complex process, common goals can be identified in collective decision making.

Catchment-Scale Analysis Reveals High Cost-Effectiveness of Wetland Buffer Zones as a Remedy to Non-Point Nutrient Pollution in North-Eastern Poland

Large-scale re-establishment of wetland buffer zones (WBZ) along rivers is regarded as an effective measure in order to reduce non-point source nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) pollution in agricultural catchments. We estimated efficiency and costs of a hypothetical establishment of WBZs along all watercourses in an agricultural landscape of the lower Narew River catchment (north-eastern Poland, 16,444 km2, amounting to 5% of Poland) by upscaling results obtained in five sub-catchments (1087 km2). Two scenarios were analysed, with either rewetting selected wetland polygons that collect water from larger areas (polygonal WBZs) or reshaping and rewetting banks of rivers (linear WBZs), both considered in all ecologically suitable locations along rivers. Cost calculation included engineering works necessary in order to establish WBZs, costs of land purchase where relevant, and compensation costs of income forgone to farmers (needed only for polygonal WBZs). Polygonal WBZs were estimated in order to remove 11%–30% N and 14%–42% P load from the catchment, whereas linear WBZs were even higher with 33%–82% N and 41%–87% P. Upscaled costs of WBZ establishment for the study area were found to be 8.9 M EUR plus 26.4 M EUR per year (polygonal WBZ scenario) or 170.8 M EUR (linear WBZ scenario). The latter value compares to costs of building about 20 km of an express road. Implementation of buffer zones on a larger scale is thus a question of setting policy priorities rather than financial impossibility.

Challenges and Opportunities for Land Use Transformation: Insights from the Central Plains Water Scheme in New Zealand

Agricultural systems in New Zealand, as elsewhere in the world, are subject to increasing environmental (and associated social) pressures, for example, around water quality and greenhouse gas emissions. Whilst novel, knowledge-based, alternative land use systems, exist that could relieve these pressures, the challenge facing New Zealand is how to achieve a timely transition to these systems at any meaningful scale. This paper considers the factors that are important to land managers in determining whether or not to change their land use system when the development of an irrigation scheme provides an opportunity for transformative change. A multicriteria decision-making framework using the analytical hierarchy process is used to assess the factors influencing decision makers who are shareholders in the Central Plains Water Scheme in the South Island of New Zealand. As expected, financial factors generally were weighted above other factors in terms of importance. Social, environmental and market factors were rated similarly, whilst regulatory and knowledge factors appeared generally less important. In addition to profitability, the study identified the desire of land managers to simplify complex agricultural systems, their need for scale, their concerns over knowledge competition, their willingness to collaborate and the challenge brought about by ‘cultural path dependency’ as being important. This suggests that if novel systems can be developed that better meet these needs and concerns as well as addressing the wider environmental and social challenges, then there may be a greater chance of engendering a land use transition.

Addressing Imbalances in Phosphorus Accumulation in Canadian Agricultural Soils

Adequate phosphorus (P) is needed for crop production, but excessive P poses a potential risk to water quality. Results from the cumulative P balance calculations within the indicator of risk of water contamination by phosphorus (IROWC-P) developed in Canada were assessed to determine the spatial and temporal trends in P accumulation at a regional scale and to consider the implications of these trends. Regional cumulative P balances were calculated from census data as a proxy for soil test P (STP) values, including the contribution of fertilizer or manure P to these balances. Ideally, over time we would see a convergence of soil test values at the low end of the critical response range for crop growth, where agronomic and environmental considerations are balanced, but this does not appear to be the case for many regions in Canada. Nationally, about 61% of agricultural land was predicted to be low in STP, and over half of this land is failing to replace the P that is removed each year. While only about 10% of the agricultural land has accumulated significantly more P than is needed for crop growth, almost all of this land is continuing to accumulate P rather than drawing it down. Manure is the dominant P source for continuing accumulation in regions with high or very high estimated STP; reducing this input will be difficult because of the nature of manure and the investment in buildings and infrastructure tied to specific locations, but it is clear that current Canadian policies need strengthened.

Transforming phosphorus use on the island of Ireland: A model for a sustainable system

Phosphorus is an essential part of the world food web and a non-substitutable nutrient in all biological systems. Losses of phosphorus occur along the food-supply chain and cause environmental degradation and eutrophication. A key global challenge is to meet rising worldwide food demand while protecting water and environmental quality, and seeking to manage uncertainty around potential future phosphorus price or supply shocks. This paper presents a stakeholder-generated conceptual model of potential transformative change for implementing phosphorus sustainability on the island of Ireland via an 'All-Island Phosphorus Sustainability' workshop. Key transition pathways identified by stakeholders included: incentivising phosphorus recovery, developing collaborative networks to facilitate change, developing markets and value chains for recovered products; implementing data-informed practices on-farm to prevent losses and increase efficiencies, and harmonisation of technologies with end-user needs. A comparable model was previously produced for the North American region. We describe consensus and differences around key priorities between the two regions' conceptual models, and assess how the model produced for the island of Ireland can effect system-wide change and policy moving forward. Many of the transitional pathways and future aspirations presented in both models resonate globally and are highly pertinent to other jurisdictions.

Aquifer Sustainability and the Use of Desalinated Seawater for Greenhouse Irrigation in the Campo de Níjar, Southeast Spain

In the Campo de Níjar (southeast Spain), an intensive horticulture model under plastic has been developed based on the use of groundwater. For many years, aquifers have been overexploited, almost generating an environmental collapse. The construction of a desalination plant was planned to improve this situation and to achieve sustainable aquifer management. However, the aquifer is still being overexploited, since farmers scarcely use desalinated seawater for irrigation. In this paper, farmers irrigating with desalinated seawater are characterized, since they contribute to aquifer sustainability. The study aimed to identify the variables which condition the use of this water resource, as well as the kinds of incentives that encourage this option. For this purpose, a survey was undertaken within a sample of 110 farmers. A cluster analysis and a binary logistic regression were employed. The results from the cluster analysis allowed the characterization of farmers who use desalinated seawater for irrigation. Furthermore, the regression model showed the variables that determine a more intensive use of this irrigation source, such as crop diversification, availability of different water resources and the conductivity of aquifer water available for irrigation. The incentives promoting the use of desalinated seawater for irrigation that most encourage farmers are the implementation of tax relief, price reductions and the obligation to install rainwater collection systems.